storage/grpc_client.go

// Copyright 2022 Google LLC
//
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
// You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//      http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
// limitations under the License.

package storage

import (
	"context"
	"encoding/base64"
	"errors"
	"fmt"
	"hash/crc32"
	"io"
	"net/url"
	"os"

	"cloud.google.com/go/iam/apiv1/iampb"
	"cloud.google.com/go/internal/trace"
	gapic "cloud.google.com/go/storage/internal/apiv2"
	"cloud.google.com/go/storage/internal/apiv2/storagepb"
	"github.com/golang/protobuf/proto"
	"github.com/googleapis/gax-go/v2"
	"google.golang.org/api/googleapi"
	"google.golang.org/api/iterator"
	"google.golang.org/api/option"
	"google.golang.org/api/option/internaloption"
	"google.golang.org/grpc"
	"google.golang.org/grpc/codes"
	"google.golang.org/grpc/encoding"
	"google.golang.org/grpc/metadata"
	"google.golang.org/grpc/status"
	"google.golang.org/protobuf/encoding/protowire"
	fieldmaskpb "google.golang.org/protobuf/types/known/fieldmaskpb"
)

const (
	// defaultConnPoolSize is the default number of channels
	// to initialize in the GAPIC gRPC connection pool. A larger
	// connection pool may be necessary for jobs that require
	// high throughput and/or leverage many concurrent streams
	// if not running via DirectPath.
	//
	// This is only used for the gRPC client.
	defaultConnPoolSize = 1

	// maxPerMessageWriteSize is the maximum amount of content that can be sent
	// per WriteObjectRequest message. A buffer reaching this amount will
	// precipitate a flush of the buffer. It is only used by the gRPC Writer
	// implementation.
	maxPerMessageWriteSize int = int(storagepb.ServiceConstants_MAX_WRITE_CHUNK_BYTES)

	// globalProjectAlias is the project ID alias used for global buckets.
	//
	// This is only used for the gRPC API.
	globalProjectAlias = "_"

	// msgEntityNotSupported indicates ACL entites using project ID are not currently supported.
	//
	// This is only used for the gRPC API.
	msgEntityNotSupported = "The gRPC API currently does not support ACL entities using project ID, use project numbers instead"
)

// defaultGRPCOptions returns a set of the default client options
// for gRPC client initialization.
func defaultGRPCOptions() []option.ClientOption {
	defaults := []option.ClientOption{
		option.WithGRPCConnectionPool(defaultConnPoolSize),
	}

	// Set emulator options for gRPC if an emulator was specified. Note that in a
	// hybrid client, STORAGE_EMULATOR_HOST will set the host to use for HTTP and
	// STORAGE_EMULATOR_HOST_GRPC will set the host to use for gRPC (when using a
	// local emulator, HTTP and gRPC must use different ports, so this is
	// necessary).
	//
	// TODO: When the newHybridClient is not longer used, remove
	// STORAGE_EMULATOR_HOST_GRPC and use STORAGE_EMULATOR_HOST for both the
	// HTTP and gRPC based clients.
	if host := os.Getenv("STORAGE_EMULATOR_HOST_GRPC"); host != "" {
		// Strip the scheme from the emulator host. WithEndpoint does not take a
		// scheme for gRPC.
		host = stripScheme(host)

		defaults = append(defaults,
			option.WithEndpoint(host),
			option.WithGRPCDialOption(grpc.WithInsecure()),
			option.WithoutAuthentication(),
		)
	} else {
		// Only enable DirectPath when the emulator is not being targeted.
		defaults = append(defaults, internaloption.EnableDirectPath(true))
	}

	return defaults
}

// grpcStorageClient is the gRPC API implementation of the transport-agnostic
// storageClient interface.
type grpcStorageClient struct {
	raw      *gapic.Client
	settings *settings
}

// newGRPCStorageClient initializes a new storageClient that uses the gRPC
// Storage API.
func newGRPCStorageClient(ctx context.Context, opts ...storageOption) (storageClient, error) {
	s := initSettings(opts...)
	s.clientOption = append(defaultGRPCOptions(), s.clientOption...)

	config := newStorageConfig(s.clientOption...)
	if config.readAPIWasSet {
		return nil, errors.New("storage: GRPC is incompatible with any option that specifies an API for reads")
	}

	g, err := gapic.NewClient(ctx, s.clientOption...)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	return &grpcStorageClient{
		raw:      g,
		settings: s,
	}, nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) Close() error {
	return c.raw.Close()
}

// Top-level methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) GetServiceAccount(ctx context.Context, project string, opts ...storageOption) (string, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.GetServiceAccountRequest{
		Project: toProjectResource(project),
	}
	var resp *storagepb.ServiceAccount
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		resp, err = c.raw.GetServiceAccount(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return "", err
	}
	return resp.EmailAddress, err
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) CreateBucket(ctx context.Context, project, bucket string, attrs *BucketAttrs, enableObjectRetention *bool, opts ...storageOption) (*BucketAttrs, error) {
	if enableObjectRetention != nil {
		// TO-DO: implement ObjectRetention once available - see b/308194853
		return nil, status.Errorf(codes.Unimplemented, "storage: object retention is not supported in gRPC")
	}

	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	b := attrs.toProtoBucket()
	b.Project = toProjectResource(project)
	// If there is lifecycle information but no location, explicitly set
	// the location. This is a GCS quirk/bug.
	if b.GetLocation() == "" && b.GetLifecycle() != nil {
		b.Location = "US"
	}

	req := &storagepb.CreateBucketRequest{
		Parent:   fmt.Sprintf("projects/%s", globalProjectAlias),
		Bucket:   b,
		BucketId: bucket,
	}
	if attrs != nil {
		req.PredefinedAcl = attrs.PredefinedACL
		req.PredefinedDefaultObjectAcl = attrs.PredefinedDefaultObjectACL
	}

	var battrs *BucketAttrs
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		res, err := c.raw.CreateBucket(ctx, req, s.gax...)

		battrs = newBucketFromProto(res)

		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)

	return battrs, err
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListBuckets(ctx context.Context, project string, opts ...storageOption) *BucketIterator {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	it := &BucketIterator{
		ctx:       ctx,
		projectID: project,
	}

	var gitr *gapic.BucketIterator
	fetch := func(pageSize int, pageToken string) (token string, err error) {

		var buckets []*storagepb.Bucket
		var next string
		err = run(it.ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
			// Initialize GAPIC-based iterator when pageToken is empty, which
			// indicates that this fetch call is attempting to get the first page.
			//
			// Note: Initializing the GAPIC-based iterator lazily is necessary to
			// capture the BucketIterator.Prefix set by the user *after* the
			// BucketIterator is returned to them from the veneer.
			if pageToken == "" {
				req := &storagepb.ListBucketsRequest{
					Parent: toProjectResource(it.projectID),
					Prefix: it.Prefix,
				}
				gitr = c.raw.ListBuckets(ctx, req, s.gax...)
			}
			buckets, next, err = gitr.InternalFetch(pageSize, pageToken)
			return err
		}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
		if err != nil {
			return "", err
		}

		for _, bkt := range buckets {
			b := newBucketFromProto(bkt)
			it.buckets = append(it.buckets, b)
		}

		return next, nil
	}
	it.pageInfo, it.nextFunc = iterator.NewPageInfo(
		fetch,
		func() int { return len(it.buckets) },
		func() interface{} { b := it.buckets; it.buckets = nil; return b })

	return it
}

// Bucket methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteBucket(ctx context.Context, bucket string, conds *BucketConditions, opts ...storageOption) error {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.DeleteBucketRequest{
		Name: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
	}
	if err := applyBucketCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.DeleteBucket", conds, req); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}

	return run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		return c.raw.DeleteBucket(ctx, req, s.gax...)
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) GetBucket(ctx context.Context, bucket string, conds *BucketConditions, opts ...storageOption) (*BucketAttrs, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.GetBucketRequest{
		Name:     bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
		ReadMask: &fieldmaskpb.FieldMask{Paths: []string{"*"}},
	}
	if err := applyBucketCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.GetBucket", conds, req); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}

	var battrs *BucketAttrs
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		res, err := c.raw.GetBucket(ctx, req, s.gax...)

		battrs = newBucketFromProto(res)

		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)

	if s, ok := status.FromError(err); ok && s.Code() == codes.NotFound {
		return nil, ErrBucketNotExist
	}

	return battrs, err
}
func (c *grpcStorageClient) UpdateBucket(ctx context.Context, bucket string, uattrs *BucketAttrsToUpdate, conds *BucketConditions, opts ...storageOption) (*BucketAttrs, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	b := uattrs.toProtoBucket()
	b.Name = bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket)
	req := &storagepb.UpdateBucketRequest{
		Bucket:                     b,
		PredefinedAcl:              uattrs.PredefinedACL,
		PredefinedDefaultObjectAcl: uattrs.PredefinedDefaultObjectACL,
	}
	if err := applyBucketCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.UpdateBucket", conds, req); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}

	var paths []string
	fieldMask := &fieldmaskpb.FieldMask{
		Paths: paths,
	}
	if uattrs.CORS != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "cors")
	}
	if uattrs.DefaultEventBasedHold != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "default_event_based_hold")
	}
	if uattrs.RetentionPolicy != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "retention_policy")
	}
	if uattrs.VersioningEnabled != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "versioning")
	}
	if uattrs.RequesterPays != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "billing")
	}
	if uattrs.BucketPolicyOnly != nil || uattrs.UniformBucketLevelAccess != nil || uattrs.PublicAccessPrevention != PublicAccessPreventionUnknown {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "iam_config")
	}
	if uattrs.Encryption != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "encryption")
	}
	if uattrs.Lifecycle != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "lifecycle")
	}
	if uattrs.Logging != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "logging")
	}
	if uattrs.Website != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "website")
	}
	if uattrs.PredefinedACL != "" {
		// In cases where PredefinedACL is set, Acl is cleared.
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "acl")
	}
	if uattrs.PredefinedDefaultObjectACL != "" {
		// In cases where PredefinedDefaultObjectACL is set, DefaultObjectAcl is cleared.
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "default_object_acl")
	}
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	if uattrs.acl != nil {
		// In cases where acl is set by UpdateBucketACL method.
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "acl")
	}
	if uattrs.defaultObjectACL != nil {
		// In cases where defaultObjectACL is set by UpdateBucketACL method.
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "default_object_acl")
	}
	if uattrs.StorageClass != "" {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "storage_class")
	}
	if uattrs.RPO != RPOUnknown {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "rpo")
	}
	if uattrs.Autoclass != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "autoclass")
	}

	for label := range uattrs.setLabels {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, fmt.Sprintf("labels.%s", label))
	}

	// Delete a label by not including it in Bucket.Labels but adding the key to the update mask.
	for label := range uattrs.deleteLabels {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, fmt.Sprintf("labels.%s", label))
	}

	req.UpdateMask = fieldMask

	var battrs *BucketAttrs
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		res, err := c.raw.UpdateBucket(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		battrs = newBucketFromProto(res)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)

	return battrs, err
}
func (c *grpcStorageClient) LockBucketRetentionPolicy(ctx context.Context, bucket string, conds *BucketConditions, opts ...storageOption) error {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.LockBucketRetentionPolicyRequest{
		Bucket: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
	}
	if err := applyBucketCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.LockBucketRetentionPolicy", conds, req); err != nil {
		return err
	}

	return run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		_, err := c.raw.LockBucketRetentionPolicy(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)

}
func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListObjects(ctx context.Context, bucket string, q *Query, opts ...storageOption) *ObjectIterator {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	it := &ObjectIterator{
		ctx: ctx,
	}
	if q != nil {
		it.query = *q
	}
	req := &storagepb.ListObjectsRequest{
		Parent:                   bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
		Prefix:                   it.query.Prefix,
		Delimiter:                it.query.Delimiter,
		Versions:                 it.query.Versions,
		LexicographicStart:       it.query.StartOffset,
		LexicographicEnd:         it.query.EndOffset,
		IncludeTrailingDelimiter: it.query.IncludeTrailingDelimiter,
		MatchGlob:                it.query.MatchGlob,
		ReadMask:                 q.toFieldMask(), // a nil Query still results in a "*" FieldMask
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	fetch := func(pageSize int, pageToken string) (token string, err error) {
		// IncludeFoldersAsPrefixes is not supported for gRPC
		// TODO: remove this when support is added in the proto.
		if it.query.IncludeFoldersAsPrefixes {
			return "", status.Errorf(codes.Unimplemented, "storage: IncludeFoldersAsPrefixes is not supported in gRPC")
		}
		var objects []*storagepb.Object
		var gitr *gapic.ObjectIterator
		err = run(it.ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
			gitr = c.raw.ListObjects(ctx, req, s.gax...)
			it.ctx = ctx
			objects, token, err = gitr.InternalFetch(pageSize, pageToken)
			return err
		}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
		if err != nil {
			if st, ok := status.FromError(err); ok && st.Code() == codes.NotFound {
				err = ErrBucketNotExist
			}
			return "", err
		}

		for _, obj := range objects {
			b := newObjectFromProto(obj)
			it.items = append(it.items, b)
		}

		// Response is always non-nil after a successful request.
		res := gitr.Response.(*storagepb.ListObjectsResponse)
		for _, prefix := range res.GetPrefixes() {
			it.items = append(it.items, &ObjectAttrs{Prefix: prefix})
		}

		return token, nil
	}
	it.pageInfo, it.nextFunc = iterator.NewPageInfo(
		fetch,
		func() int { return len(it.items) },
		func() interface{} { b := it.items; it.items = nil; return b })

	return it
}

// Object metadata methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteObject(ctx context.Context, bucket, object string, gen int64, conds *Conditions, opts ...storageOption) error {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.DeleteObjectRequest{
		Bucket: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
		Object: object,
	}
	if err := applyCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.DeleteObject", gen, conds, req); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		return c.raw.DeleteObject(ctx, req, s.gax...)
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if s, ok := status.FromError(err); ok && s.Code() == codes.NotFound {
		return ErrObjectNotExist
	}
	return err
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) GetObject(ctx context.Context, bucket, object string, gen int64, encryptionKey []byte, conds *Conditions, opts ...storageOption) (*ObjectAttrs, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.GetObjectRequest{
		Bucket: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
		Object: object,
		// ProjectionFull by default.
		ReadMask: &fieldmaskpb.FieldMask{Paths: []string{"*"}},
	}
	if err := applyCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.GetObject", gen, conds, req); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	if encryptionKey != nil {
		req.CommonObjectRequestParams = toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(encryptionKey)
	}

	var attrs *ObjectAttrs
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		res, err := c.raw.GetObject(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		attrs = newObjectFromProto(res)

		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)

	if s, ok := status.FromError(err); ok && s.Code() == codes.NotFound {
		return nil, ErrObjectNotExist
	}

	return attrs, err
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) UpdateObject(ctx context.Context, params *updateObjectParams, opts ...storageOption) (*ObjectAttrs, error) {
	uattrs := params.uattrs
	if params.overrideRetention != nil || uattrs.Retention != nil {
		// TO-DO: implement ObjectRetention once available - see b/308194853
		return nil, status.Errorf(codes.Unimplemented, "storage: object retention is not supported in gRPC")
	}
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	o := uattrs.toProtoObject(bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, params.bucket), params.object)
	// For Update, generation is passed via the object message rather than a field on the request.
	if params.gen >= 0 {
		o.Generation = params.gen
	}
	req := &storagepb.UpdateObjectRequest{
		Object:        o,
		PredefinedAcl: uattrs.PredefinedACL,
	}
	if err := applyCondsProto("grpcStorageClient.UpdateObject", defaultGen, params.conds, req); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	if params.encryptionKey != nil {
		req.CommonObjectRequestParams = toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(params.encryptionKey)
	}

	fieldMask := &fieldmaskpb.FieldMask{Paths: nil}
	if uattrs.EventBasedHold != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "event_based_hold")
	}
	if uattrs.TemporaryHold != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "temporary_hold")
	}
	if uattrs.ContentType != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "content_type")
	}
	if uattrs.ContentLanguage != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "content_language")
	}
	if uattrs.ContentEncoding != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "content_encoding")
	}
	if uattrs.ContentDisposition != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "content_disposition")
	}
	if uattrs.CacheControl != nil {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "cache_control")
	}
	if !uattrs.CustomTime.IsZero() {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "custom_time")
	}
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	if uattrs.ACL != nil || len(uattrs.PredefinedACL) > 0 {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "acl")
	}

	if uattrs.Metadata != nil {
		// We don't support deleting a specific metadata key; metadata is deleted
		// as a whole if provided an empty map, so we do not use dot notation here
		if len(uattrs.Metadata) == 0 {
			fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "metadata")
		} else {
			// We can, however, use dot notation for adding keys
			for key := range uattrs.Metadata {
				fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, fmt.Sprintf("metadata.%s", key))
			}
		}
	}

	req.UpdateMask = fieldMask

	var attrs *ObjectAttrs
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		res, err := c.raw.UpdateObject(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		attrs = newObjectFromProto(res)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if e, ok := status.FromError(err); ok && e.Code() == codes.NotFound {
		return nil, ErrObjectNotExist
	}

	return attrs, err
}

// Default Object ACL methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteDefaultObjectACL(ctx context.Context, bucket string, entity ACLEntity, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// There is no separate API for PATCH in gRPC.
	// Make a GET call first to retrieve BucketAttrs.
	attrs, err := c.GetBucket(ctx, bucket, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// Delete the entity and copy other remaining ACL entities.
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	// Return error if entity is not found or a project ID is used.
	invalidEntity := true
	var acl []ACLRule
	for _, a := range attrs.DefaultObjectACL {
		if a.Entity != entity {
			acl = append(acl, a)
		}
		if a.Entity == entity {
			invalidEntity = false
		}
	}
	if invalidEntity {
		return fmt.Errorf("storage: entity %v was not found on bucket %v, got %v. %v", entity, bucket, attrs.DefaultObjectACL, msgEntityNotSupported)
	}
	uattrs := &BucketAttrsToUpdate{defaultObjectACL: acl}
	// Call UpdateBucket with a MetagenerationMatch precondition set.
	if _, err = c.UpdateBucket(ctx, bucket, uattrs, &BucketConditions{MetagenerationMatch: attrs.MetaGeneration}, opts...); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListDefaultObjectACLs(ctx context.Context, bucket string, opts ...storageOption) ([]ACLRule, error) {
	attrs, err := c.GetBucket(ctx, bucket, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return attrs.DefaultObjectACL, nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) UpdateDefaultObjectACL(ctx context.Context, bucket string, entity ACLEntity, role ACLRole, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// There is no separate API for PATCH in gRPC.
	// Make a GET call first to retrieve BucketAttrs.
	attrs, err := c.GetBucket(ctx, bucket, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	var acl []ACLRule
	aclRule := ACLRule{Entity: entity, Role: role}
	acl = append(attrs.DefaultObjectACL, aclRule)
	uattrs := &BucketAttrsToUpdate{defaultObjectACL: acl}
	// Call UpdateBucket with a MetagenerationMatch precondition set.
	if _, err = c.UpdateBucket(ctx, bucket, uattrs, &BucketConditions{MetagenerationMatch: attrs.MetaGeneration}, opts...); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

// Bucket ACL methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteBucketACL(ctx context.Context, bucket string, entity ACLEntity, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// There is no separate API for PATCH in gRPC.
	// Make a GET call first to retrieve BucketAttrs.
	attrs, err := c.GetBucket(ctx, bucket, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// Delete the entity and copy other remaining ACL entities.
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	// Return error if entity is not found or a project ID is used.
	invalidEntity := true
	var acl []ACLRule
	for _, a := range attrs.ACL {
		if a.Entity != entity {
			acl = append(acl, a)
		}
		if a.Entity == entity {
			invalidEntity = false
		}
	}
	if invalidEntity {
		return fmt.Errorf("storage: entity %v was not found on bucket %v, got %v. %v", entity, bucket, attrs.ACL, msgEntityNotSupported)
	}
	uattrs := &BucketAttrsToUpdate{acl: acl}
	// Call UpdateBucket with a MetagenerationMatch precondition set.
	if _, err = c.UpdateBucket(ctx, bucket, uattrs, &BucketConditions{MetagenerationMatch: attrs.MetaGeneration}, opts...); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListBucketACLs(ctx context.Context, bucket string, opts ...storageOption) ([]ACLRule, error) {
	attrs, err := c.GetBucket(ctx, bucket, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return attrs.ACL, nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) UpdateBucketACL(ctx context.Context, bucket string, entity ACLEntity, role ACLRole, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// There is no separate API for PATCH in gRPC.
	// Make a GET call first to retrieve BucketAttrs.
	attrs, err := c.GetBucket(ctx, bucket, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	var acl []ACLRule
	aclRule := ACLRule{Entity: entity, Role: role}
	acl = append(attrs.ACL, aclRule)
	uattrs := &BucketAttrsToUpdate{acl: acl}
	// Call UpdateBucket with a MetagenerationMatch precondition set.
	if _, err = c.UpdateBucket(ctx, bucket, uattrs, &BucketConditions{MetagenerationMatch: attrs.MetaGeneration}, opts...); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

// Object ACL methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteObjectACL(ctx context.Context, bucket, object string, entity ACLEntity, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// There is no separate API for PATCH in gRPC.
	// Make a GET call first to retrieve ObjectAttrs.
	attrs, err := c.GetObject(ctx, bucket, object, defaultGen, nil, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// Delete the entity and copy other remaining ACL entities.
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	// Return error if entity is not found or a project ID is used.
	invalidEntity := true
	var acl []ACLRule
	for _, a := range attrs.ACL {
		if a.Entity != entity {
			acl = append(acl, a)
		}
		if a.Entity == entity {
			invalidEntity = false
		}
	}
	if invalidEntity {
		return fmt.Errorf("storage: entity %v was not found on bucket %v, got %v. %v", entity, bucket, attrs.ACL, msgEntityNotSupported)
	}
	uattrs := &ObjectAttrsToUpdate{ACL: acl}
	// Call UpdateObject with the specified metageneration.
	params := &updateObjectParams{bucket: bucket, object: object, uattrs: uattrs, gen: defaultGen, conds: &Conditions{MetagenerationMatch: attrs.Metageneration}}
	if _, err = c.UpdateObject(ctx, params, opts...); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

// ListObjectACLs retrieves object ACL entries. By default, it operates on the latest generation of this object.
// Selecting a specific generation of this object is not currently supported by the client.
func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListObjectACLs(ctx context.Context, bucket, object string, opts ...storageOption) ([]ACLRule, error) {
	o, err := c.GetObject(ctx, bucket, object, defaultGen, nil, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return o.ACL, nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) UpdateObjectACL(ctx context.Context, bucket, object string, entity ACLEntity, role ACLRole, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// There is no separate API for PATCH in gRPC.
	// Make a GET call first to retrieve ObjectAttrs.
	attrs, err := c.GetObject(ctx, bucket, object, defaultGen, nil, nil, opts...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// Note: This API currently does not support entites using project ID.
	// Use project numbers in ACL entities. Pending b/233617896.
	var acl []ACLRule
	aclRule := ACLRule{Entity: entity, Role: role}
	acl = append(attrs.ACL, aclRule)
	uattrs := &ObjectAttrsToUpdate{ACL: acl}
	// Call UpdateObject with the specified metageneration.
	params := &updateObjectParams{bucket: bucket, object: object, uattrs: uattrs, gen: defaultGen, conds: &Conditions{MetagenerationMatch: attrs.Metageneration}}
	if _, err = c.UpdateObject(ctx, params, opts...); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	return nil
}

// Media operations.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) ComposeObject(ctx context.Context, req *composeObjectRequest, opts ...storageOption) (*ObjectAttrs, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}

	dstObjPb := req.dstObject.attrs.toProtoObject(req.dstBucket)
	dstObjPb.Name = req.dstObject.name

	if req.sendCRC32C {
		dstObjPb.Checksums.Crc32C = &req.dstObject.attrs.CRC32C
	}

	srcs := []*storagepb.ComposeObjectRequest_SourceObject{}
	for _, src := range req.srcs {
		srcObjPb := &storagepb.ComposeObjectRequest_SourceObject{Name: src.name, ObjectPreconditions: &storagepb.ComposeObjectRequest_SourceObject_ObjectPreconditions{}}
		if src.gen >= 0 {
			srcObjPb.Generation = src.gen
		}
		if err := applyCondsProto("ComposeObject source", defaultGen, src.conds, srcObjPb.ObjectPreconditions); err != nil {
			return nil, err
		}
		srcs = append(srcs, srcObjPb)
	}

	rawReq := &storagepb.ComposeObjectRequest{
		Destination:   dstObjPb,
		SourceObjects: srcs,
	}
	if err := applyCondsProto("ComposeObject destination", defaultGen, req.dstObject.conds, rawReq); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if req.predefinedACL != "" {
		rawReq.DestinationPredefinedAcl = req.predefinedACL
	}
	if req.dstObject.encryptionKey != nil {
		rawReq.CommonObjectRequestParams = toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(req.dstObject.encryptionKey)
	}

	var obj *storagepb.Object
	var err error
	if err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		obj, err = c.raw.ComposeObject(ctx, rawReq, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	return newObjectFromProto(obj), nil
}
func (c *grpcStorageClient) RewriteObject(ctx context.Context, req *rewriteObjectRequest, opts ...storageOption) (*rewriteObjectResponse, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	obj := req.dstObject.attrs.toProtoObject("")
	call := &storagepb.RewriteObjectRequest{
		SourceBucket:              bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, req.srcObject.bucket),
		SourceObject:              req.srcObject.name,
		RewriteToken:              req.token,
		DestinationBucket:         bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, req.dstObject.bucket),
		DestinationName:           req.dstObject.name,
		Destination:               obj,
		DestinationKmsKey:         req.dstObject.keyName,
		DestinationPredefinedAcl:  req.predefinedACL,
		CommonObjectRequestParams: toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(req.dstObject.encryptionKey),
	}

	// The userProject, whether source or destination project, is decided by the code calling the interface.
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	if err := applyCondsProto("Copy destination", defaultGen, req.dstObject.conds, call); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	if err := applySourceCondsProto(req.srcObject.gen, req.srcObject.conds, call); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	if len(req.dstObject.encryptionKey) > 0 {
		call.CommonObjectRequestParams = toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(req.dstObject.encryptionKey)
	}
	if len(req.srcObject.encryptionKey) > 0 {
		srcParams := toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(req.srcObject.encryptionKey)
		call.CopySourceEncryptionAlgorithm = srcParams.GetEncryptionAlgorithm()
		call.CopySourceEncryptionKeyBytes = srcParams.GetEncryptionKeyBytes()
		call.CopySourceEncryptionKeySha256Bytes = srcParams.GetEncryptionKeySha256Bytes()
	}

	call.MaxBytesRewrittenPerCall = req.maxBytesRewrittenPerCall

	var res *storagepb.RewriteResponse
	var err error

	retryCall := func(ctx context.Context) error { res, err = c.raw.RewriteObject(ctx, call, s.gax...); return err }

	if err := run(ctx, retryCall, s.retry, s.idempotent); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	r := &rewriteObjectResponse{
		done:     res.GetDone(),
		written:  res.GetTotalBytesRewritten(),
		size:     res.GetObjectSize(),
		token:    res.GetRewriteToken(),
		resource: newObjectFromProto(res.GetResource()),
	}

	return r, nil
}

// bytesCodec is a grpc codec which permits receiving messages as either
// protobuf messages, or as raw []bytes.
type bytesCodec struct {
	encoding.Codec
}

func (bytesCodec) Marshal(v any) ([]byte, error) {
	vv, ok := v.(proto.Message)
	if !ok {
		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to marshal, message is %T, want proto.Message", v)
	}
	return proto.Marshal(vv)
}

func (bytesCodec) Unmarshal(data []byte, v any) error {
	switch v := v.(type) {
	case *[]byte:
		// If gRPC could recycle the data []byte after unmarshaling (through
		// buffer pools), we would need to make a copy here.
		*v = data
		return nil
	case proto.Message:
		return proto.Unmarshal(data, v)
	default:
		return fmt.Errorf("can not unmarshal type %T", v)
	}
}

func (bytesCodec) Name() string {
	// If this isn't "", then gRPC sets the content-subtype of the call to this
	// value and we get errors.
	return ""
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) NewRangeReader(ctx context.Context, params *newRangeReaderParams, opts ...storageOption) (r *Reader, err error) {
	ctx = trace.StartSpan(ctx, "cloud.google.com/go/storage.grpcStorageClient.NewRangeReader")
	defer func() { trace.EndSpan(ctx, err) }()

	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)

	s.gax = append(s.gax, gax.WithGRPCOptions(
		grpc.ForceCodec(bytesCodec{}),
	))

	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}

	b := bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, params.bucket)
	req := &storagepb.ReadObjectRequest{
		Bucket:                    b,
		Object:                    params.object,
		CommonObjectRequestParams: toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(params.encryptionKey),
	}
	// The default is a negative value, which means latest.
	if params.gen >= 0 {
		req.Generation = params.gen
	}

	var databuf []byte

	// Define a function that initiates a Read with offset and length, assuming
	// we have already read seen bytes.
	reopen := func(seen int64) (*readStreamResponse, context.CancelFunc, error) {
		// If the context has already expired, return immediately without making
		// we call.
		if err := ctx.Err(); err != nil {
			return nil, nil, err
		}

		cc, cancel := context.WithCancel(ctx)

		req.ReadOffset = params.offset + seen

		// Only set a ReadLimit if length is greater than zero, because <= 0 means
		// to read it all.
		if params.length > 0 {
			req.ReadLimit = params.length - seen
		}

		if err := applyCondsProto("gRPCReader.reopen", params.gen, params.conds, req); err != nil {
			cancel()
			return nil, nil, err
		}

		var stream storagepb.Storage_ReadObjectClient
		var msg *storagepb.ReadObjectResponse
		var err error

		err = run(cc, func(ctx context.Context) error {
			stream, err = c.raw.ReadObject(cc, req, s.gax...)
			if err != nil {
				return err
			}

			// Receive the message into databuf as a wire-encoded message so we can
			// use a custom decoder to avoid an extra copy at the protobuf layer.
			err := stream.RecvMsg(&databuf)
			// These types of errors show up on the Recv call, rather than the
			// initialization of the stream via ReadObject above.
			if s, ok := status.FromError(err); ok && s.Code() == codes.NotFound {
				return ErrObjectNotExist
			}
			if err != nil {
				return err
			}
			// Use a custom decoder that uses protobuf unmarshalling for all
			// fields except the checksummed data.
			// Subsequent receives in Read calls will skip all protobuf
			// unmarshalling and directly read the content from the gRPC []byte
			// response, since only the first call will contain other fields.
			msg, err = readFullObjectResponse(databuf)

			return err
		}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
		if err != nil {
			// Close the stream context we just created to ensure we don't leak
			// resources.
			cancel()
			return nil, nil, err
		}

		return &readStreamResponse{stream, msg}, cancel, nil
	}

	res, cancel, err := reopen(0)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	// The first message was Recv'd on stream open, use it to populate the
	// object metadata.
	msg := res.response
	obj := msg.GetMetadata()
	// This is the size of the entire object, even if only a range was requested.
	size := obj.GetSize()

	// Only support checksums when reading an entire object, not a range.
	var (
		wantCRC  uint32
		checkCRC bool
	)
	if checksums := msg.GetObjectChecksums(); checksums != nil && checksums.Crc32C != nil && params.offset == 0 && params.length < 0 {
		wantCRC = checksums.GetCrc32C()
		checkCRC = true
	}

	r = &Reader{
		Attrs: ReaderObjectAttrs{
			Size:            size,
			ContentType:     obj.GetContentType(),
			ContentEncoding: obj.GetContentEncoding(),
			CacheControl:    obj.GetCacheControl(),
			LastModified:    obj.GetUpdateTime().AsTime(),
			Metageneration:  obj.GetMetageneration(),
			Generation:      obj.GetGeneration(),
		},
		reader: &gRPCReader{
			stream: res.stream,
			reopen: reopen,
			cancel: cancel,
			size:   size,
			// Store the content from the first Recv in the
			// client buffer for reading later.
			leftovers: msg.GetChecksummedData().GetContent(),
			settings:  s,
			zeroRange: params.length == 0,
			databuf:   databuf,
			wantCRC:   wantCRC,
			checkCRC:  checkCRC,
		},
		checkCRC: checkCRC,
	}

	cr := msg.GetContentRange()
	if cr != nil {
		r.Attrs.StartOffset = cr.GetStart()
		r.remain = cr.GetEnd() - cr.GetStart()
	} else {
		r.remain = size
	}

	// For a zero-length request, explicitly close the stream and set remaining
	// bytes to zero.
	if params.length == 0 {
		r.remain = 0
		r.reader.Close()
	}

	return r, nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) OpenWriter(params *openWriterParams, opts ...storageOption) (*io.PipeWriter, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)

	var offset int64
	errorf := params.setError
	progress := params.progress
	setObj := params.setObj

	pr, pw := io.Pipe()
	gw := newGRPCWriter(c, params, pr)
	gw.settings = s
	if s.userProject != "" {
		gw.ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(gw.ctx, s.userProject)
	}

	// This function reads the data sent to the pipe and sends sets of messages
	// on the gRPC client-stream as the buffer is filled.
	go func() {
		defer close(params.donec)

		// Loop until there is an error or the Object has been finalized.
		for {
			// Note: This blocks until either the buffer is full or EOF is read.
			recvd, doneReading, err := gw.read()
			if err != nil {
				err = checkCanceled(err)
				errorf(err)
				pr.CloseWithError(err)
				return
			}

			if params.attrs.Retention != nil {
				// TO-DO: remove once ObjectRetention is available - see b/308194853
				err = status.Errorf(codes.Unimplemented, "storage: object retention is not supported in gRPC")
				errorf(err)
				pr.CloseWithError(err)
				return
			}
			// The chunk buffer is full, but there is no end in sight. This
			// means that either:
			// 1. A resumable upload will need to be used to send
			// multiple chunks, until we are done reading data. Start a
			// resumable upload if it has not already been started.
			// 2. ChunkSize of zero may also have a full buffer, but a resumable
			// session should not be initiated in this case.
			if !doneReading && gw.upid == "" && params.chunkSize != 0 {
				err = gw.startResumableUpload()
				if err != nil {
					err = checkCanceled(err)
					errorf(err)
					pr.CloseWithError(err)
					return
				}
			}

			o, off, err := gw.uploadBuffer(recvd, offset, doneReading)
			if err != nil {
				err = checkCanceled(err)
				errorf(err)
				pr.CloseWithError(err)
				return
			}

			// At this point, the current buffer has been uploaded. For resumable
			// uploads and chunkSize = 0, capture the committed offset here in case
			// the upload was not finalized and another chunk is to be uploaded. Call
			// the progress function for resumable uploads only.
			if gw.upid != "" || gw.chunkSize == 0 {
				offset = off
			}
			if gw.upid != "" {
				progress(offset)
			}

			// When we are done reading data without errors, set the object and
			// finish.
			if doneReading {
				// Build Object from server's response.
				setObj(newObjectFromProto(o))
				return
			}
		}
	}()

	return pw, nil
}

// IAM methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) GetIamPolicy(ctx context.Context, resource string, version int32, opts ...storageOption) (*iampb.Policy, error) {
	// TODO: Need a way to set UserProject, potentially in X-Goog-User-Project system parameter.
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &iampb.GetIamPolicyRequest{
		Resource: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, resource),
		Options: &iampb.GetPolicyOptions{
			RequestedPolicyVersion: version,
		},
	}
	var rp *iampb.Policy
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		rp, err = c.raw.GetIamPolicy(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)

	return rp, err
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) SetIamPolicy(ctx context.Context, resource string, policy *iampb.Policy, opts ...storageOption) error {
	// TODO: Need a way to set UserProject, potentially in X-Goog-User-Project system parameter.
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)

	req := &iampb.SetIamPolicyRequest{
		Resource: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, resource),
		Policy:   policy,
	}

	return run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		_, err := c.raw.SetIamPolicy(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) TestIamPermissions(ctx context.Context, resource string, permissions []string, opts ...storageOption) ([]string, error) {
	// TODO: Need a way to set UserProject, potentially in X-Goog-User-Project system parameter.
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &iampb.TestIamPermissionsRequest{
		Resource:    bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, resource),
		Permissions: permissions,
	}
	var res *iampb.TestIamPermissionsResponse
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		res, err = c.raw.TestIamPermissions(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return res.Permissions, nil
}

// HMAC Key methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) GetHMACKey(ctx context.Context, project, accessID string, opts ...storageOption) (*HMACKey, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.GetHmacKeyRequest{
		AccessId: accessID,
		Project:  toProjectResource(project),
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	var metadata *storagepb.HmacKeyMetadata
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		metadata, err = c.raw.GetHmacKey(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return toHMACKeyFromProto(metadata), nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListHMACKeys(ctx context.Context, project, serviceAccountEmail string, showDeletedKeys bool, opts ...storageOption) *HMACKeysIterator {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.ListHmacKeysRequest{
		Project:             toProjectResource(project),
		ServiceAccountEmail: serviceAccountEmail,
		ShowDeletedKeys:     showDeletedKeys,
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	it := &HMACKeysIterator{
		ctx:       ctx,
		projectID: project,
		retry:     s.retry,
	}
	fetch := func(pageSize int, pageToken string) (token string, err error) {
		var hmacKeys []*storagepb.HmacKeyMetadata
		err = run(it.ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
			gitr := c.raw.ListHmacKeys(ctx, req, s.gax...)
			hmacKeys, token, err = gitr.InternalFetch(pageSize, pageToken)
			return err
		}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
		if err != nil {
			return "", err
		}
		for _, hkmd := range hmacKeys {
			hk := toHMACKeyFromProto(hkmd)
			it.hmacKeys = append(it.hmacKeys, hk)
		}

		return token, nil
	}
	it.pageInfo, it.nextFunc = iterator.NewPageInfo(
		fetch,
		func() int { return len(it.hmacKeys) - it.index },
		func() interface{} {
			prev := it.hmacKeys
			it.hmacKeys = it.hmacKeys[:0]
			it.index = 0
			return prev
		})
	return it
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) UpdateHMACKey(ctx context.Context, project, serviceAccountEmail, accessID string, attrs *HMACKeyAttrsToUpdate, opts ...storageOption) (*HMACKey, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	hk := &storagepb.HmacKeyMetadata{
		AccessId:            accessID,
		Project:             toProjectResource(project),
		ServiceAccountEmail: serviceAccountEmail,
		State:               string(attrs.State),
		Etag:                attrs.Etag,
	}
	var paths []string
	fieldMask := &fieldmaskpb.FieldMask{
		Paths: paths,
	}
	if attrs.State != "" {
		fieldMask.Paths = append(fieldMask.Paths, "state")
	}
	req := &storagepb.UpdateHmacKeyRequest{
		HmacKey:    hk,
		UpdateMask: fieldMask,
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	var metadata *storagepb.HmacKeyMetadata
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		metadata, err = c.raw.UpdateHmacKey(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return toHMACKeyFromProto(metadata), nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) CreateHMACKey(ctx context.Context, project, serviceAccountEmail string, opts ...storageOption) (*HMACKey, error) {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.CreateHmacKeyRequest{
		Project:             toProjectResource(project),
		ServiceAccountEmail: serviceAccountEmail,
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	var res *storagepb.CreateHmacKeyResponse
	err := run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		res, err = c.raw.CreateHmacKey(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	key := toHMACKeyFromProto(res.Metadata)
	key.Secret = base64.StdEncoding.EncodeToString(res.SecretKeyBytes)

	return key, nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteHMACKey(ctx context.Context, project string, accessID string, opts ...storageOption) error {
	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.DeleteHmacKeyRequest{
		AccessId: accessID,
		Project:  toProjectResource(project),
	}
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	return run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		return c.raw.DeleteHmacKey(ctx, req, s.gax...)
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
}

// Notification methods.

func (c *grpcStorageClient) ListNotifications(ctx context.Context, bucket string, opts ...storageOption) (n map[string]*Notification, err error) {
	ctx = trace.StartSpan(ctx, "cloud.google.com/go/storage.grpcStorageClient.ListNotifications")
	defer func() { trace.EndSpan(ctx, err) }()

	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	if s.userProject != "" {
		ctx = setUserProjectMetadata(ctx, s.userProject)
	}
	req := &storagepb.ListNotificationConfigsRequest{
		Parent: bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
	}
	var notifications []*storagepb.NotificationConfig
	err = run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		gitr := c.raw.ListNotificationConfigs(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		for {
			// PageSize is not set and fallbacks to the API default pageSize of 100.
			items, nextPageToken, err := gitr.InternalFetch(int(req.GetPageSize()), req.GetPageToken())
			if err != nil {
				return err
			}
			notifications = append(notifications, items...)
			// If there are no more results, nextPageToken is empty and err is nil.
			if nextPageToken == "" {
				return err
			}
			req.PageToken = nextPageToken
		}
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	return notificationsToMapFromProto(notifications), nil
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) CreateNotification(ctx context.Context, bucket string, n *Notification, opts ...storageOption) (ret *Notification, err error) {
	ctx = trace.StartSpan(ctx, "cloud.google.com/go/storage.grpcStorageClient.CreateNotification")
	defer func() { trace.EndSpan(ctx, err) }()

	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.CreateNotificationConfigRequest{
		Parent:             bucketResourceName(globalProjectAlias, bucket),
		NotificationConfig: toProtoNotification(n),
	}
	var pbn *storagepb.NotificationConfig
	err = run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		var err error
		pbn, err = c.raw.CreateNotificationConfig(ctx, req, s.gax...)
		return err
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return toNotificationFromProto(pbn), err
}

func (c *grpcStorageClient) DeleteNotification(ctx context.Context, bucket string, id string, opts ...storageOption) (err error) {
	ctx = trace.StartSpan(ctx, "cloud.google.com/go/storage.grpcStorageClient.DeleteNotification")
	defer func() { trace.EndSpan(ctx, err) }()

	s := callSettings(c.settings, opts...)
	req := &storagepb.DeleteNotificationConfigRequest{Name: id}
	return run(ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		return c.raw.DeleteNotificationConfig(ctx, req, s.gax...)
	}, s.retry, s.idempotent)
}

// setUserProjectMetadata appends a project ID to the outgoing Context metadata
// via the x-goog-user-project system parameter defined at
// https://cloud.google.com/apis/docs/system-parameters. This is only for
// billing purposes, and is generally optional, except for requester-pays
// buckets.
func setUserProjectMetadata(ctx context.Context, project string) context.Context {
	return metadata.AppendToOutgoingContext(ctx, "x-goog-user-project", project)
}

type readStreamResponse struct {
	stream   storagepb.Storage_ReadObjectClient
	response *storagepb.ReadObjectResponse
}

type gRPCReader struct {
	seen, size int64
	zeroRange  bool
	stream     storagepb.Storage_ReadObjectClient
	reopen     func(seen int64) (*readStreamResponse, context.CancelFunc, error)
	leftovers  []byte
	databuf    []byte
	cancel     context.CancelFunc
	settings   *settings
	checkCRC   bool   // should we check the CRC?
	wantCRC    uint32 // the CRC32c value the server sent in the header
	gotCRC     uint32 // running crc
}

// Update the running CRC with the data in the slice, if CRC checking was enabled.
func (r *gRPCReader) updateCRC(b []byte) {
	if r.checkCRC {
		r.gotCRC = crc32.Update(r.gotCRC, crc32cTable, b)
	}
}

// Checks whether the CRC matches at the conclusion of a read, if CRC checking was enabled.
func (r *gRPCReader) runCRCCheck() error {
	if r.checkCRC && r.gotCRC != r.wantCRC {
		return fmt.Errorf("storage: bad CRC on read: got %d, want %d", r.gotCRC, r.wantCRC)
	}
	return nil
}

// Read reads bytes into the user's buffer from an open gRPC stream.
func (r *gRPCReader) Read(p []byte) (int, error) {
	// The entire object has been read by this reader, check the checksum if
	// necessary and return EOF.
	if r.size == r.seen || r.zeroRange {
		if err := r.runCRCCheck(); err != nil {
			return 0, err
		}
		return 0, io.EOF
	}

	// No stream to read from, either never initialized or Close was called.
	// Note: There is a potential concurrency issue if multiple routines are
	// using the same reader. One encounters an error and the stream is closed
	// and then reopened while the other routine attempts to read from it.
	if r.stream == nil {
		return 0, fmt.Errorf("storage: reader has been closed")
	}

	var n int
	// Read leftovers and return what was available to conform to the Reader
	// interface: https://pkg.go.dev/io#Reader.
	if len(r.leftovers) > 0 {
		n = copy(p, r.leftovers)
		r.seen += int64(n)
		r.updateCRC(p[:n])
		r.leftovers = r.leftovers[n:]
		return n, nil
	}

	// Attempt to Recv the next message on the stream.
	content, err := r.recv()
	if err != nil {
		return 0, err
	}

	// TODO: Determine if we need to capture incremental CRC32C for this
	// chunk. The Object CRC32C checksum is captured when directed to read
	// the entire Object. If directed to read a range, we may need to
	// calculate the range's checksum for verification if the checksum is
	// present in the response here.
	// TODO: Figure out if we need to support decompressive transcoding
	// https://cloud.google.com/storage/docs/transcoding.
	n = copy(p[n:], content)
	leftover := len(content) - n
	if leftover > 0 {
		// Wasn't able to copy all of the data in the message, store for
		// future Read calls.
		r.leftovers = content[n:]
	}
	r.seen += int64(n)
	r.updateCRC(p[:n])

	return n, nil
}

// WriteTo writes all the data requested by the Reader into w, implementing
// io.WriterTo.
func (r *gRPCReader) WriteTo(w io.Writer) (int64, error) {
	// The entire object has been read by this reader, check the checksum if
	// necessary and return nil.
	if r.size == r.seen || r.zeroRange {
		if err := r.runCRCCheck(); err != nil {
			return 0, err
		}
		return 0, nil
	}

	// No stream to read from, either never initialized or Close was called.
	// Note: There is a potential concurrency issue if multiple routines are
	// using the same reader. One encounters an error and the stream is closed
	// and then reopened while the other routine attempts to read from it.
	if r.stream == nil {
		return 0, fmt.Errorf("storage: reader has been closed")
	}

	// Track bytes written during before call.
	var alreadySeen = r.seen

	// Write any leftovers to the stream. There will be some leftovers from the
	// original NewRangeReader call.
	if len(r.leftovers) > 0 {
		// Write() will write the entire leftovers slice unless there is an error.
		written, err := w.Write(r.leftovers)
		r.seen += int64(written)
		r.updateCRC(r.leftovers)
		r.leftovers = nil
		if err != nil {
			return r.seen - alreadySeen, err
		}
	}

	// Loop and receive additional messages until the entire data is written.
	for {
		// Attempt to receive the next message on the stream.
		// Will terminate with io.EOF once data has all come through.
		// recv() handles stream reopening and retry logic so no need for retries here.
		msg, err := r.recv()
		if err != nil {
			if err == io.EOF {
				// We are done; check the checksum if necessary and return.
				err = r.runCRCCheck()
			}
			return r.seen - alreadySeen, err
		}

		// TODO: Determine if we need to capture incremental CRC32C for this
		// chunk. The Object CRC32C checksum is captured when directed to read
		// the entire Object. If directed to read a range, we may need to
		// calculate the range's checksum for verification if the checksum is
		// present in the response here.
		// TODO: Figure out if we need to support decompressive transcoding
		// https://cloud.google.com/storage/docs/transcoding.
		written, err := w.Write(msg)
		r.seen += int64(written)
		r.updateCRC(msg)
		if err != nil {
			return r.seen - alreadySeen, err
		}
	}

}

// Close cancels the read stream's context in order for it to be closed and
// collected.
func (r *gRPCReader) Close() error {
	if r.cancel != nil {
		r.cancel()
	}
	r.stream = nil
	return nil
}

// recv attempts to Recv the next message on the stream and extract the object
// data that it contains. In the event that a retryable error is encountered,
// the stream will be closed, reopened, and RecvMsg again.
// This will attempt to Recv until one of the following is true:
//
// * Recv is successful
// * A non-retryable error is encountered
// * The Reader's context is canceled
//
// The last error received is the one that is returned, which could be from
// an attempt to reopen the stream.
func (r *gRPCReader) recv() ([]byte, error) {
	err := r.stream.RecvMsg(&r.databuf)

	var shouldRetry = ShouldRetry
	if r.settings.retry != nil && r.settings.retry.shouldRetry != nil {
		shouldRetry = r.settings.retry.shouldRetry
	}
	if err != nil && shouldRetry(err) {
		// This will "close" the existing stream and immediately attempt to
		// reopen the stream, but will backoff if further attempts are necessary.
		// Reopening the stream Recvs the first message, so if retrying is
		// successful, the next logical chunk will be returned.
		msg, err := r.reopenStream()
		return msg.GetChecksummedData().GetContent(), err
	}

	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}

	return readObjectResponseContent(r.databuf)
}

// ReadObjectResponse field and subfield numbers.
const (
	checksummedDataField        = protowire.Number(1)
	checksummedDataContentField = protowire.Number(1)
	checksummedDataCRC32CField  = protowire.Number(2)
	objectChecksumsField        = protowire.Number(2)
	contentRangeField           = protowire.Number(3)
	metadataField               = protowire.Number(4)
)

// readObjectResponseContent returns the checksummed_data.content field of a
// ReadObjectResponse message, or an error if the message is invalid.
// This can be used on recvs of objects after the first recv, since only the
// first message will contain non-data fields.
func readObjectResponseContent(b []byte) ([]byte, error) {
	checksummedData, err := readProtoBytes(b, checksummedDataField)
	if err != nil {
		return b, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ChecksummedData: %v", err)
	}
	content, err := readProtoBytes(checksummedData, checksummedDataContentField)
	if err != nil {
		return content, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ChecksummedData.Content: %v", err)
	}

	return content, nil
}

// readFullObjectResponse returns the ReadObjectResponse that is encoded in the
// wire-encoded message buffer b, or an error if the message is invalid.
// This must be used on the first recv of an object as it may contain all fields
// of ReadObjectResponse, and we use or pass on those fields to the user.
// This function is essentially identical to proto.Unmarshal, except it aliases
// the data in the input []byte. If the proto library adds a feature to
// Unmarshal that does that, this function can be dropped.
func readFullObjectResponse(b []byte) (*storagepb.ReadObjectResponse, error) {
	msg := &storagepb.ReadObjectResponse{}

	// Loop over the entire message, extracting fields as we go. This does not
	// handle field concatenation, in which the contents of a single field
	// are split across multiple protobuf tags.
	off := 0
	for off < len(b) {
		// Consume the next tag. This will tell us which field is next in the
		// buffer, its type, and how much space it takes up.
		fieldNum, fieldType, fieldLength := protowire.ConsumeTag(b[off:])
		if fieldLength < 0 {
			return nil, protowire.ParseError(fieldLength)
		}
		off += fieldLength

		// Unmarshal the field according to its type. Only fields that are not
		// nil will be present.
		switch {
		case fieldNum == checksummedDataField && fieldType == protowire.BytesType:
			// The ChecksummedData field was found. Initialize the struct.
			msg.ChecksummedData = &storagepb.ChecksummedData{}

			// Get the bytes corresponding to the checksummed data.
			fieldContent, n := protowire.ConsumeBytes(b[off:])
			if n < 0 {
				return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ChecksummedData: %v", protowire.ParseError(n))
			}
			off += n

			// Get the nested fields. We need to do this manually as it contains
			// the object content bytes.
			contentOff := 0
			for contentOff < len(fieldContent) {
				gotNum, gotTyp, n := protowire.ConsumeTag(fieldContent[contentOff:])
				if n < 0 {
					return nil, protowire.ParseError(n)
				}
				contentOff += n

				switch {
				case gotNum == checksummedDataContentField && gotTyp == protowire.BytesType:
					// Get the content bytes.
					bytes, n := protowire.ConsumeBytes(fieldContent[contentOff:])
					if n < 0 {
						return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ChecksummedData.Content: %v", protowire.ParseError(n))
					}
					msg.ChecksummedData.Content = bytes
					contentOff += n
				case gotNum == checksummedDataCRC32CField && gotTyp == protowire.Fixed32Type:
					v, n := protowire.ConsumeFixed32(fieldContent[contentOff:])
					if n < 0 {
						return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ChecksummedData.Crc32C: %v", protowire.ParseError(n))
					}
					msg.ChecksummedData.Crc32C = &v
					contentOff += n
				default:
					n = protowire.ConsumeFieldValue(gotNum, gotTyp, fieldContent[contentOff:])
					if n < 0 {
						return nil, protowire.ParseError(n)
					}
					contentOff += n
				}
			}
		case fieldNum == objectChecksumsField && fieldType == protowire.BytesType:
			// The field was found. Initialize the struct.
			msg.ObjectChecksums = &storagepb.ObjectChecksums{}

			// Get the bytes corresponding to the checksums.
			bytes, n := protowire.ConsumeBytes(b[off:])
			if n < 0 {
				return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ObjectChecksums: %v", protowire.ParseError(n))
			}
			off += n

			// Unmarshal.
			if err := proto.Unmarshal(bytes, msg.ObjectChecksums); err != nil {
				return nil, err
			}
		case fieldNum == contentRangeField && fieldType == protowire.BytesType:
			msg.ContentRange = &storagepb.ContentRange{}

			bytes, n := protowire.ConsumeBytes(b[off:])
			if n < 0 {
				return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.ContentRange: %v", protowire.ParseError(n))
			}
			off += n

			if err := proto.Unmarshal(bytes, msg.ContentRange); err != nil {
				return nil, err
			}
		case fieldNum == metadataField && fieldType == protowire.BytesType:
			msg.Metadata = &storagepb.Object{}

			bytes, n := protowire.ConsumeBytes(b[off:])
			if n < 0 {
				return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid ReadObjectResponse.Metadata: %v", protowire.ParseError(n))
			}
			off += n

			if err := proto.Unmarshal(bytes, msg.Metadata); err != nil {
				return nil, err
			}
		default:
			fieldLength = protowire.ConsumeFieldValue(fieldNum, fieldType, b[off:])
			if fieldLength < 0 {
				return nil, fmt.Errorf("default: %v", protowire.ParseError(fieldLength))
			}
			off += fieldLength
		}
	}

	return msg, nil
}

// readProtoBytes returns the contents of the protobuf field with number num
// and type bytes from a wire-encoded message. If the field cannot be found,
// the returned slice will be nil and no error will be returned.
//
// It does not handle field concatenation, in which the contents of a single field
// are split across multiple protobuf tags. Encoded data containing split fields
// of this form is technically permissable, but uncommon.
func readProtoBytes(b []byte, num protowire.Number) ([]byte, error) {
	off := 0
	for off < len(b) {
		gotNum, gotTyp, n := protowire.ConsumeTag(b[off:])
		if n < 0 {
			return nil, protowire.ParseError(n)
		}
		off += n
		if gotNum == num && gotTyp == protowire.BytesType {
			b, n := protowire.ConsumeBytes(b[off:])
			if n < 0 {
				return nil, protowire.ParseError(n)
			}
			return b, nil
		}
		n = protowire.ConsumeFieldValue(gotNum, gotTyp, b[off:])
		if n < 0 {
			return nil, protowire.ParseError(n)
		}
		off += n
	}
	return nil, nil
}

// reopenStream "closes" the existing stream and attempts to reopen a stream and
// sets the Reader's stream and cancelStream properties in the process.
func (r *gRPCReader) reopenStream() (*storagepb.ReadObjectResponse, error) {
	// Close existing stream and initialize new stream with updated offset.
	r.Close()

	res, cancel, err := r.reopen(r.seen)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	r.stream = res.stream
	r.cancel = cancel
	return res.response, nil
}

func newGRPCWriter(c *grpcStorageClient, params *openWriterParams, r io.Reader) *gRPCWriter {
	size := params.chunkSize

	// Round up chunksize to nearest 256KiB
	if size%googleapi.MinUploadChunkSize != 0 {
		size += googleapi.MinUploadChunkSize - (size % googleapi.MinUploadChunkSize)
	}

	// A completely bufferless upload is not possible as it is in JSON because
	// the buffer must be provided to the message. However use the minimum size
	// possible in this case.
	if params.chunkSize == 0 {
		size = googleapi.MinUploadChunkSize
	}

	return &gRPCWriter{
		buf:                   make([]byte, size),
		c:                     c,
		ctx:                   params.ctx,
		reader:                r,
		bucket:                params.bucket,
		attrs:                 params.attrs,
		conds:                 params.conds,
		encryptionKey:         params.encryptionKey,
		sendCRC32C:            params.sendCRC32C,
		chunkSize:             params.chunkSize,
		forceEmptyContentType: params.forceEmptyContentType,
	}
}

// gRPCWriter is a wrapper around the the gRPC client-stream API that manages
// sending chunks of data provided by the user over the stream.
type gRPCWriter struct {
	c      *grpcStorageClient
	buf    []byte
	reader io.Reader

	ctx context.Context

	bucket        string
	attrs         *ObjectAttrs
	conds         *Conditions
	encryptionKey []byte
	settings      *settings

	sendCRC32C            bool
	chunkSize             int
	forceEmptyContentType bool

	// The gRPC client-stream used for sending buffers.
	stream storagepb.Storage_BidiWriteObjectClient

	// The Resumable Upload ID started by a gRPC-based Writer.
	upid string
}

// startResumableUpload initializes a Resumable Upload with gRPC and sets the
// upload ID on the Writer.
func (w *gRPCWriter) startResumableUpload() error {
	spec, err := w.writeObjectSpec()
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	req := &storagepb.StartResumableWriteRequest{
		WriteObjectSpec:           spec,
		CommonObjectRequestParams: toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(w.encryptionKey),
	}
	// TODO: Currently the checksums are only sent on the request to initialize
	// the upload, but in the future, we must also support sending it
	// on the *last* message of the stream.
	req.ObjectChecksums = toProtoChecksums(w.sendCRC32C, w.attrs)
	return run(w.ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		upres, err := w.c.raw.StartResumableWrite(w.ctx, req)
		w.upid = upres.GetUploadId()
		return err
	}, w.settings.retry, w.settings.idempotent)
}

// queryProgress is a helper that queries the status of the resumable upload
// associated with the given upload ID.
func (w *gRPCWriter) queryProgress() (int64, error) {
	var persistedSize int64
	err := run(w.ctx, func(ctx context.Context) error {
		q, err := w.c.raw.QueryWriteStatus(w.ctx, &storagepb.QueryWriteStatusRequest{
			UploadId: w.upid,
		})
		persistedSize = q.GetPersistedSize()
		return err
	}, w.settings.retry, true)

	// q.GetCommittedSize() will return 0 if q is nil.
	return persistedSize, err
}

// uploadBuffer uploads the buffer at the given offset using a bi-directional
// Write stream. It will open a new stream if necessary (on the first call or
// after resuming from failure). The resulting write offset after uploading the
// buffer is returned, as well as well as the final Object if the upload is
// completed.
//
// Returns object, persisted size, and any error that is not retriable.
func (w *gRPCWriter) uploadBuffer(recvd int, start int64, doneReading bool) (*storagepb.Object, int64, error) {
	var shouldRetry = ShouldRetry
	if w.settings.retry != nil && w.settings.retry.shouldRetry != nil {
		shouldRetry = w.settings.retry.shouldRetry
	}

	var err error
	var lastWriteOfEntireObject bool

	sent := 0
	writeOffset := start

	toWrite := w.buf[:recvd]

	// Send a request with as many bytes as possible.
	// Loop until all bytes are sent.
sendBytes: // label this loop so that we can use a continue statement from a nested block
	for {
		bytesNotYetSent := recvd - sent
		remainingDataFitsInSingleReq := bytesNotYetSent <= maxPerMessageWriteSize

		if remainingDataFitsInSingleReq && doneReading {
			lastWriteOfEntireObject = true
		}

		// Send the maximum amount of bytes we can, unless we don't have that many.
		bytesToSendInCurrReq := maxPerMessageWriteSize
		if remainingDataFitsInSingleReq {
			bytesToSendInCurrReq = bytesNotYetSent
		}

		// Prepare chunk section for upload.
		data := toWrite[sent : sent+bytesToSendInCurrReq]

		req := &storagepb.BidiWriteObjectRequest{
			Data: &storagepb.BidiWriteObjectRequest_ChecksummedData{
				ChecksummedData: &storagepb.ChecksummedData{
					Content: data,
				},
			},
			WriteOffset: writeOffset,
			FinishWrite: lastWriteOfEntireObject,
			Flush:       remainingDataFitsInSingleReq && !lastWriteOfEntireObject,
			StateLookup: remainingDataFitsInSingleReq && !lastWriteOfEntireObject,
		}

		// Open a new stream if necessary and set the first_message field on
		// the request. The first message on the WriteObject stream must either
		// be the Object or the Resumable Upload ID.
		if w.stream == nil {
			hds := []string{"x-goog-request-params", fmt.Sprintf("bucket=projects/_/buckets/%s", url.QueryEscape(w.bucket))}
			ctx := gax.InsertMetadataIntoOutgoingContext(w.ctx, hds...)

			w.stream, err = w.c.raw.BidiWriteObject(ctx)
			if err != nil {
				return nil, 0, err
			}

			if w.upid != "" { // resumable upload
				req.FirstMessage = &storagepb.BidiWriteObjectRequest_UploadId{UploadId: w.upid}
			} else { // non-resumable
				spec, err := w.writeObjectSpec()
				if err != nil {
					return nil, 0, err
				}
				req.FirstMessage = &storagepb.BidiWriteObjectRequest_WriteObjectSpec{
					WriteObjectSpec: spec,
				}
				req.CommonObjectRequestParams = toProtoCommonObjectRequestParams(w.encryptionKey)
				// For a non-resumable upload, checksums must be sent in this message.
				// TODO: Currently the checksums are only sent on the first message
				// of the stream, but in the future, we must also support sending it
				// on the *last* message of the stream (instead of the first).
				req.ObjectChecksums = toProtoChecksums(w.sendCRC32C, w.attrs)
			}
		}

		err = w.stream.Send(req)
		if err == io.EOF {
			// err was io.EOF. The client-side of a stream only gets an EOF on Send
			// when the backend closes the stream and wants to return an error
			// status.

			// Receive from the stream Recv() until it returns a non-nil error
			// to receive the server's status as an error. We may get multiple
			// messages before the error due to buffering.
			err = nil
			for err == nil {
				_, err = w.stream.Recv()
			}
			// Drop the stream reference as a new one will need to be created if
			// we retry.
			w.stream = nil

			// Retriable errors mean we should start over and attempt to
			// resend the entire buffer via a new stream.
			// If not retriable, falling through will return the error received.
			if shouldRetry(err) {
				// TODO: Add test case for failure modes of querying progress.
				writeOffset, err = w.determineOffset(start)
				if err != nil {
					return nil, 0, err
				}
				sent = int(writeOffset) - int(start)

				// Continue sending requests, opening a new stream and resending
				// any bytes not yet persisted as per QueryWriteStatus
				continue sendBytes
			}
		}
		if err != nil {
			return nil, 0, err
		}

		// Update the immediate stream's sent total and the upload offset with
		// the data sent.
		sent += len(data)
		writeOffset += int64(len(data))

		// Not done sending data, do not attempt to commit it yet, loop around
		// and send more data.
		if recvd-sent > 0 {
			continue sendBytes
		}

		// The buffer has been uploaded and there is still more data to be
		// uploaded, but this is not a resumable upload session. Therefore,
		// don't check persisted data.
		if !lastWriteOfEntireObject && w.chunkSize == 0 {
			return nil, writeOffset, nil
		}

		// Done sending the data in the buffer (remainingDataFitsInSingleReq
		// should == true if we reach this code).
		// If we are done sending the whole object, close the stream and get the final
		// object. Otherwise, receive from the stream to confirm the persisted data.
		if !lastWriteOfEntireObject {
			resp, err := w.stream.Recv()

			// Retriable errors mean we should start over and attempt to
			// resend the entire buffer via a new stream.
			// If not retriable, falling through will return the error received
			// from closing the stream.
			if shouldRetry(err) {
				writeOffset, err = w.determineOffset(start)
				if err != nil {
					return nil, 0, err
				}
				sent = int(writeOffset) - int(start)

				// Drop the stream reference as a new one will need to be created.
				w.stream = nil

				continue sendBytes
			}
			if err != nil {
				return nil, 0, err
			}

			if resp.GetPersistedSize() != writeOffset {
				// Retry if not all bytes were persisted.
				writeOffset = resp.GetPersistedSize()
				sent = int(writeOffset) - int(start)
				continue sendBytes
			}
		} else {
			// If the object is done uploading, close the send stream to signal
			// to the server that we are done sending so that we can receive
			// from the stream without blocking.
			err = w.stream.CloseSend()
			if err != nil {
				// CloseSend() retries the send internally. It never returns an
				// error in the current implementation, but we check it anyway in
				// case that it does in the future.
				return nil, 0, err
			}

			// Stream receives do not block once send is closed, but we may not
			// receive the response with the object right away; loop until we
			// receive the object or error out.
			var obj *storagepb.Object
			for obj == nil {
				resp, err := w.stream.Recv()
				if shouldRetry(err) {
					writeOffset, err = w.determineOffset(start)
					if err != nil {
						return nil, 0, err
					}
					sent = int(writeOffset) - int(start)
					w.stream = nil
					continue sendBytes
				}
				if err != nil {
					return nil, 0, err
				}

				obj = resp.GetResource()
			}

			// Even though we received the object response, continue reading
			// until we receive a non-nil error, to ensure the stream does not
			// leak even if the context isn't cancelled. See:
			// https://pkg.go.dev/google.golang.org/grpc#ClientConn.NewStream
			for err == nil {
				_, err = w.stream.Recv()
			}

			return obj, writeOffset, nil
		}

		return nil, writeOffset, nil
	}
}

// determineOffset either returns the offset given to it in the case of a simple
// upload, or queries the write status in the case a resumable upload is being
// used.
func (w *gRPCWriter) determineOffset(offset int64) (int64, error) {
	// For a Resumable Upload, we must start from however much data
	// was committed.
	if w.upid != "" {
		committed, err := w.queryProgress()
		if err != nil {
			return 0, err
		}
		offset = committed
	}
	return offset, nil
}

// writeObjectSpec constructs a WriteObjectSpec proto using the Writer's
// ObjectAttrs and applies its Conditions. This is only used for gRPC.
func (w *gRPCWriter) writeObjectSpec() (*storagepb.WriteObjectSpec, error) {
	// To avoid modifying the ObjectAttrs embeded in the calling writer, deref
	// the ObjectAttrs pointer to make a copy, then assign the desired name to
	// the attribute.
	attrs := *w.attrs

	spec := &storagepb.WriteObjectSpec{
		Resource: attrs.toProtoObject(w.bucket),
	}
	// WriteObject doesn't support the generation condition, so use default.
	if err := applyCondsProto("WriteObject", defaultGen, w.conds, spec); err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return spec, nil
}

// read copies the data in the reader to the given buffer and reports how much
// data was read into the buffer and if there is no more data to read (EOF).
// Furthermore, if the attrs.ContentType is unset, the first bytes of content
// will be sniffed for a matching content type unless forceEmptyContentType is enabled.
func (w *gRPCWriter) read() (int, bool, error) {
	if w.attrs.ContentType == "" && !w.forceEmptyContentType {
		w.reader, w.attrs.ContentType = gax.DetermineContentType(w.reader)
	}
	// Set n to -1 to start the Read loop.
	var n, recvd int = -1, 0
	var err error
	for err == nil && n != 0 {
		// The routine blocks here until data is received.
		n, err = w.reader.Read(w.buf[recvd:])
		recvd += n
	}
	var done bool
	if err == io.EOF {
		done = true
		err = nil
	}
	return recvd, done, err
}

func checkCanceled(err error) error {
	if status.Code(err) == codes.Canceled {
		return context.Canceled
	}

	return err
}