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A Conceptual Framework and Comparison of Spatial Data Models
Abstract
IntroductionTheoretical FrameworkExamples of Traditional Geographic Data ModelsRecent Developments in Spatial Data ModelsFuture Developments in Spatial Data HandlingSummary and Conclusions
References
... A field-based model treats geographic informafield-based model tion as collections of spatial distributions. In a field-based model, each Object versus field Space may be conceptualized in two distinct ways: either as a set of locations with properties (absolute space, existent in itself) or as a set of objects with spatial properties (relative space, dependent upon other objects, see Chrisman, 1975Chrisman, , 1978Peuquet, 1984). This dichotomy turns out to have far-reaching implications for spatial modeling, where absolute space is modeled as a set of fields and relative space as collections of spatially referenced objects. ...
... 4.2.1 Good discussions of the relative merits of field-based against object-based models (although sometimes not using that terminology) are contained in Peuquet (1984), Morehouse (1990), Goodchild (1991), and Couclelis (1992). 4.3.1 Chrisman (19974.3.1 Chrisman ( , 1998 provides an introduction to and critique of Stevens' four levels of measurement, from a GIS perspective. ...
... Examples of planar regular and irregular nested tessellations are shown below. The first two (triangle and square) are regular, but the third (hexagon) is not, because hexagons cannot fit together to make a larger hexagon (see Peuquet, 1984). The nested square tessellation of the plane leads to the quadtree data structure, discussed in Chapter 6. ...
... In the 1970s, GIS evolved into a computer-aided process that automated map production. Various cartographic data structures were developed to encode map data (Peuquet, 1984;Zhu, 2016). The ODYSSEY GIS, developed by the Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis Laboratory at Harvard University, was a pioneer in data structuring for digitally encoding line and area features on maps (Peucker & Chrisman, 1975). ...
Since the 1970s, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have gained increasing recognition in the literature, drawing the attention of numerous scientific disciplines, particularly within technical and environmental sciences. What initially began as computerized map production in the 1970s has evolved with advancements in computer processing power and capacity, supported by various software packages. This study aims to reveal the general tendencies in research studies conducted in the fields of urban planning, spatial planning, and landscape planning. To identify these trends, a bibliometric analysis was conducted by examining literature on studies published worldwide, including Türkiye. For this purpose, 2,354 research and review articles published between 1990 and 2022 and indexed in the Web of Science database were analyzed using VOSviewer software, which is suitable for scientific mapping and bibliometric analysis. The analysis focused on the most frequently published journals, highly-cited authors and countries, collaborative authorship relationships, and the most cited authors, journals, and research topics in Türkiye. As a result, it has been observed that, considering the emergence of modern GIS concepts in the late 1970s and subsequent development based on spatial data from the 1980s, studies in the fields of Urban and Regional Planning, Urban Design, and Landscape Architecture have gained momentum since the 1990s. Research establishing the relationship between GIS and planning in Türkiye has been increasing since 2004, with the primary focus of these studies being categorized into three clusters: site selection, spatial mapping, and mathematical modeling. Cite this article as: Çelik KT, Şekeroğlu A. The importance of geographical information systems in urban and landscape planning: A bibliometric analysis. Megaron 2023;18(4):499-519.
... Shi proposed a 3D vectorized data structure (3D FDS), which consists of four components: the node, arc, edge, and surface elements [17]. Fumagalli suggested a more in-depth study of data models within 3D space that examines different spatial modeling methods for spatial phenomena, and proposed many 3D spatial data models [18]. Rong suggested several research and development activities relative to VR techniques and finally developed many useful products. ...
With the recent shift in public aesthetics, tourism agriculture, which combines tourism with modern agriculture, has become a new and popular form of tourism, exhibiting great potential. Internationally, tourism is known as a sunrise industry that will never decline because the benefits and impact introduced by tourism are not only limited to the industry itself but also the development of other fields. It stimulates the labor force by creating job vacancies, consumption, economic benefits, and opportunities for the surrounding areas. Therefore, paying attention to the development of tourism and focusing on the trending frontier issues of the industry are of practical value to the development of social economy and culture. Traditional forms of tourism develop economic value by focusing on people’s direct experiences at specific times and places. However, this approach is somewhat limited by time and space constraints, preventing the full exploitation of the economic and cultural value of tourism landscapes. In contrast, modern rural tourism models based on virtual environment modeling and virtual reality technology can address this issue, enhancing the development of rural tourism industries. Virtual environment modeling designs specific spatial environments and simulates internal elements, providing authenticity to environments and a sense of reality using textures. Virtual reality technology goes further in creating highly realistic virtual environments that are generated by computers, encompassing visual, auditory, linguistic, force, tactile, motion, and olfactory elements, and enabling natural interactions between various sensory devices of the operator and the landscape model. The combination of these two approaches offers a broader scope and more nuanced physical and mental experiences for the rural tourism industry. This paper explores the optimization role of virtual environment and environmental landscape modeling based on virtual reality technology in designing rural tourism landscapes. It examines the specific elements of optimization within this type of technology and, using algorithms, demonstrates that these methods provide a 15.73% optimization rate in the sightseeing process compared to traditional tourism models, making them widely applicable in the design of rural tourism landscape environments.
... The spatial data model is a human conceptualisation of a given geographic space including all the entities embedded in that space, otherwise called "universe of discourse" (UOD). The formalization is normally done without consideration of hardware and other implementation conventions (Peuquet, 1984;Egenhofer & Herring, 1991). In a simplified form, we are interested in knowing what is where and when using a field-based or an object-based concept of the "real world". ...
An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at Oduduwa Hall, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria On Tuesday, 12th October, 2021
... The most fundamental geometric objects are so-called geometric primitives. These are geometric objects that can be described by one continuous geometry and include points, curves, surfaces, and solids [31]. ...
Inertial odometry is a typical localization method that is widely and easily accessible in many devices. Pedestrian positioning can benefit from this approach based on inertial measurement unit (IMU) values embedded in smartphones. Fitting the inertial odometry outputs, namely step length and step heading of a human for instance, with spatial information is an ubiquitous way to correct for the cumulative noises. This so-called map-matching process can be achieved in several ways. In this paper, a novel real-time map-matching approach was developed, using a backtracking particle filter that benefits from the implemented geospatial analysis, which reduces the complexity of spatial queries and provides flexibility in the use of different kinds of spatial constraints. The goal was to generalize the algorithm to permit the use of any kind of odometry data calculated by different sensors and approaches as the input. Further research, development, and comparisons have been done by the easy implementation of different spatial constraints and use cases due to the modular structure. Additionally, a simple map-based optimization using transition areas between floors has been developed. The developed algorithm could achieve accuracies of up to 3 m at approximately the 90th percentile for two different experiments in a complex building structure.
... Cette intégration du temps dans les SIGs a constitué un sujet de recherche depuis la fin des années 1980 et est encore en plein développement. Cela a débuté avec (Peuquet, 1984) qui, en présentant une taxonomie et uné etude approfondie des modèles de données spatiales, a clairement mentionné l'importance du temps dans les systèmes d'informations géographiques et la nécessité d'une meilleur intégration de la dimension temporelle. Toutefois, il nous faut attendre les travaux de (Langran and Chrisman, 1988) pour in-1 troduire, pour une première fois, quelques concepts fondamentaux d'un SIG temporel. ...
Grâce au développement permanent de la technologie des capteurs géo-localisés et des infrastructures d'acquisition de données, les chercheurs en sciences environnementales et urbaines disposent de nouvelles possibilités pour étudier les phénomènes géographiques à différentes échelles temporelles et spatiales. En effet, le large éventail de données géographiques désormais disponibles offre de multiples possibilités d'exploration des données spatio-temporelles pour une meilleure compréhension de la nature de la dynamique des processus environnementaux sous-jacents. Face à de telles opportunités, des défis majeurs se manifestent et soulèvent cependant de nombreuses questions méthodologiques liées à la conceptualisation et à la représentation numérique de l'espace-temps. L'objectif de cette recherche consiste à développer une modélisation hybride de l'espace géographique qui réconcilie les approches champs et objet et qui prenne en compte une fine intégration de la dimension temporelle. Sur la base de ce modèle de données spatio-temporel hybride, notre approche spécifie un large éventail de requêtes spatio-temporelles qualifiées d'hybrides et qui permet d’exploiter le potentiel du modèle développé. La finalité consiste à explorer et de valider dans quelle mesure une telle représentation hybride puisse fournir une modélisation faisable et sémantiquement riche, et d'autre part de permettre la définition de mécanismes de manipulation au niveau d'un langage d'interrogation pour l'étude de phénomènes géographiques complexes. Le contexte de validation proposé est celui d’un phénomène de dynamique de géomorphologie marine. Ce cas est considéré comme un exemple pertinent de phénomène environnemental pour lequel une représentation hybride a un sens. Une série d'expériences de performance et d'extensibilité sont finalement rapportées et montrent comment l'ensemble du modèle se comporte.
Following two successful editions, the third edition of GIS: A Computing Perspective has been completely revised and updated, with extensive new content reflecting the significant progress that has been made in the realm of GIS within the last 20 years. Major new topics covered for the first time in this edition include: graph databases and graph query languages, ontology engineering and qualitative spatial reasoning, geosensor networks and GeoAI, decentralized computing and online algorithms, and critical GIS and data sovereignty.
Features
Includes an entirely new chapter on AI and GIS, including ontologies and the Semantic Web, knowledge representation (KR) and spatial reasoning, machine learning and spatial analysis, and neural networks and deep learning
Presents new material reflecting the advances made in cloud computing, stream computing, and sensor networks, as well as extensively revised and updated content on cartography, visualization, and interaction design
Connects the technology to the social aspects and implications of GIS, including privacy and fair information practices, FATE (fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics), and codes of conduct for responsible use of GIS
Integrates the necessary background to foundational areas, such as databases and data structures, algorithms and indexes, and system architecture and AI, provided in context so readers new to those topics can still understand the concepts being discussed
Incorporates over 20 carefully explained spatial algorithms; over 60 inset boxes with in-depth material that enriches the central topics; and more than 300 color figures to support the reader in mastering key concepts
Welcomes a new coauthor, Qian (Chayn) Sun, to the third edition, who brings her expertise in topics such as web mapping, cloud computing, critical geography, and machine learning with big spatial data
Intended for anyone interested in understanding GIS, especially students taking upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses in computer science and geography, as well as academics, researchers, practitioners, and professionals working in the field and involved in advanced GIS projects.
En este editorial se reseña el modelo de Ratajski (1977) porque, a pesar de todos los cambios tecnológicos involucrados en las técnicas de producción cartográfica, su visión del proceso de comunicación cartográfica, del mapa como elemento central de este proceso y de las interacciones entre la realidad, el emisor y el receptor, sigue vigente 45 años después de su publicación. El modelo cartográfico de Lech Ratajski y las relaciones (i) realidad observada - cartógrafo - mapa y (ii) mapa - usuario - realidad interpretada son conceptos que todo geógrafo y todo profesional relacionado con la composición cartográfica debería tener siempre presente en el desarrollo de su quehacer diario.
Globally, communities are constantly responding and coping with risks due to climate and land‐use land‐cover change. In Southeast Asia, impacts from these changes are evident in hydro‐meteorological hazards that are projected to increase in anomaly, frequency and magnitude. In response to these risks, the concept of climate‐community resilience is widely applied in research and policy‐making. Although previous studies have adopted index‐based approaches, an over‐simplified urban‐rural dichotomy is perpetuated in visualization and disaster governance. This study thus aims to uncover how the geographic dynamics of urban‐rural resilience can be assessed and represented as a continuous, uneven and active process. With drought as the hazard of concern, this study models resilience along the urban‐rural continuum in Yangon, Myanmar. The results show that resilience is not dichotomous in form. Areas of high resilience are mostly located along boundaries of contiguous administrative towns, rather than abiding by the physical landscape morphology. It also depends on the intrinsic fabric of a community, that is, its degree of urbanism and ruralness. The study supports the usage of continuous representation in future resilience assessments for relatively urbanized and urbanizing regions. It encourages the conceptualization of disaster governance that considers the decentralization of resilient systems.
ANÁLISE ESPACIAL DE ESTRUTURAS INTRA-URBANAS: O
CASO DE SÃO PAULO
It has been shown previously that the Voronoi diagram for a set of n points in the Euclidean plane can be constructed in O(n log n) time, and that this is optimal to within a constant factor. The notion of a Voronoi diagram is generalized to include Voronoi diagrams for line segments and other geometric figures and an algorithm to construct the Voronoi diagram for a set of n line segments is presented. This algorithm can be extended to compute Voronoi diagrams for circles, polygons, and other figures.
The use of curves to represent two-dimensional structures is an important part of many scientific investigations. For example, geographers use curves extensively to represent map features such as contour lines, roads, and rivers. Circuit layout designers use curves to specify the wiring between circuits. Because of the very large amount of data involved and the need to perform operations on this data efficiently, the representation of such curves is a crucial issue. A hierarchical representation consisting of binary trees with a special datum at each node is described. This datum is called a strip and the tree that contains such data is called a strip tree. Lower levels in the tree correspond to finer resolution representations of the curve. The strip tree structure is a direct consequence of using a special method for digitizing lines and retaining all intermediate steps. This gives several desirable properties. For curves that are well-behaved, intersection and point-membership (for closed curves) calculations can be solved in 0(log n ) where n is the number of points describing the curve. The curves can be efficiently encoded and displayed at various resolutions. The representation is closed under intersection and union and these operations can be carried out at different resolutions. All these properties depend on the hierarchical tree structure which allows primitive operations to be performed at the lowest possible resolution with great computational time savings.
Strip trees is a linear interpolation scheme which realizes an important space savings by not representing all the points explicitly. This means that even when the overhead of the tree indexing is added, the storage requirement is comparable to raster representations which do represent most of the points explicitly.
Although tessellations of Thiessen polygons are attractive conceptually as simple spatial models, their value in this regard is limited by the restrictive nature of both the model assumptions and the patterns which they generate. This paper suggests two simple ways by which Thiessen polygon models can be modified to produce what are designated "weighted polygon" models. The approach involves the recognition that the edges in a tessellation of Thiessen polygons are a special case of Descartes' ovals. Two specific, weighted polygon models are produced using other realizations of Descartes' ovals. Both new models are given both assignment and growth interpretations, and their relationships with other existing geographic models are explored. Using equivalencies identified in this way, applications of the models are examined.
This chapter discusses the pattern and search statistics. Most of the paper discusses one particular application and the work presented is descriptive of approaches to that application. In situations that arise in artificial intelligence, initial null and alternative hypotheses must be modified as information is obtained. One modification concerns the establishment of other hypotheses to which the observed last datum also contributes and a decision regarding as to which pair of null and alternative hypotheses to emphasize in further testing.
A method for assembling and managing global terrain data is presented, the Geodesic Elevation Model. Derived from concepts in geometry, geography, geodesy, applied mathematics and computer science, GEM is designed to digitally archive and access measurements of points given in latitude, longitude and elevation from any source, by embedding them in a regular, polyhedral data structure. To do this, the model recursively tessellates a regular solid, either an octahedron or an icosahedron, into equilateral triangular facets. Spot measurements are encoded by successive approximation, mapping a given geodetic location to proximal centroids of nested triangles.-from Author
Current graphic devices suitable for high-speed computer input and output of cartographic data are tending more and more to be raster-oriented, such as the rotating drum scanner and the color raster display. However, the majority of commonly used manipulative techniques in computer-assisted cartography and automated spatial data handling continue to require that the data be in vector format. This situation has recently precipitated the requirement for very fast techniques for converting digital cartographic data from raster to vector format for processing, and then back into raster format for plotting. The current article is part one of a two-part paper concerned with examining the state-of-the-art in these conversion techniques. In part one, algorithms to perform all phases of the raster-to-vector process are systematically outlined, and then compared in general terms. Examples of existing implementations of the raster-to-vector process are also described and evaluated. Part two will outline and compare ...
