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Effects of Electronic Monitoring Types on Perceptions of Procedural Justice, Interpersonal Justice, and Privacy1
Abstract
Electronic performance monitoring and control systems (EPMCSs) are raising fairness and privacy concerns in many organizations. Researchers typically have treated different types of EPMCSs as equal, yet various EPMCS types (e.g., computer monitoring, eavesdropping, surveillance) may exert differential influences on fairness and privacy perceptions. In this study, 246 participants read scenarios describing different technologies for evaluating performance. Results indicated that EPMCS types significantly influenced perceptions of procedural justice, interpersonal justice, and privacy. Computer monitoring was perceived as the most procedurally just; but traditional direct observation by a supervisor without electronic monitoring was perceived as the most interpersonally just, and the least invasive in terms of privacy. These findings suggest that employers should be cautious in the type of monitoring used.
... A more comprehensive inquiry into ethical concerns is necessary to understand the complexity of EM (Martin & Freeman, 2002). On the one hand, it is argued that EM may improve work performance, security and safety (Bhave, 2013;Lucas et al., 2016), while on the other hand, EM raises questions regarding engagement, privacy and social control of employees (McNall & Roch, 2007;Zweig & Webster, 2003). ...
... This might be particularly relevant when employees do not know what data is being collected and for what purposes monitoring is taking place. Previous studies have found that increasing transparency regarding the types and purposes of data collection can minimize people's negative attitudes (Anderson & Agarwal, 2011;McNall & Roch, 2007;ten Berg et al., 2019). Therefore, it is necessary to thoroughly weigh the effects of transparency and understand when transparency positively influences employees' acceptance of being monitored.While some research has been carried out on the impact of location monitoring procedures on employees' attitudes and acceptance (Jeske & Santuzzi, 2015;Jeske, 2022;Wells et al., 2007), there have been few empirical investigations of the role of transparency in the acceptance of ELM. ...
... While the use of innovative tracking and tracing technologies holds attractive potential for companies, it is also associated with serious risks. There is considerable evidence in the literature that monitoring can also evoke negative reactions, such as feeling that one's privacy has been invaded (McNall & Roch, 2007), perceptions of unfairness (Moorman & Wells, 2003), decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Wells et al., 2007) as well as greater stress in work-related tasks (Aiello & Kolb, 1995;Ravid et al., 2022). It is now well established from a variety of studies that the extent to which employees believe monitoring is an invasion of privacy influences their acceptance of monitoring (Alder et al., 2008;Van Slyke et al., 2006). ...
In the context of smart manufacturing, the technical development of monitoring systems has made it possible to track employees with the same systems that are used to track assets. This study contri-butes to our understanding of the acceptance of location-based monitoring of employees and investigates how the perceived priv-acy risk regarding monitoring can be tackled by examining the role of transparency and the perceived value of monitoring. We designed an experimental setting in which students assembled a 3D printer and manipulated transparency with two conditions: a detailed explanation of monitoring during the task vs. monitoring without any explanation. The results show that the higher the privacy concerns and perceived risks were, the lower was the acceptance for monitoring. However, the negative effect of per-ceived risk diminishes when both, transparency and the value of monitoring are high, but becomes even stronger when only trans-parency is high and perceived value is low
... Further, EPM systems with different purposes are likely to send different messages about an individual's value and standing, creating differences in motivation to perform. McNall and Roch (2007) found, in support of this notion, that EPM purpose influenced performance through its impact on interpersonal justice perceptions and trust in management. Wells et al., (2007) found that employees were more motivated to help their organization achieve goals when monitoring was for development rather than for performance appraisal purposes; and Jeske and Santuzzi (2015) found that monitoring with different purposes (i.e., for worker safety, to deter resource abuse) differentially influenced workers' willingness to engage in OCBs. ...
... Although highly synchronous EPM may be perceived as more restrictive than intermittent or delayed data collection and storage, research suggests that individuals may prefer the predictability of continuous collection to the unpredictability of intermittent monitoring (Jeske & Santuzzi, 2015). Compared to intermittent monitoring, however, individuals may perceive more continuous monitoring as more thoroughly and accurately capturing typical performance within and across individuals; and, therefore, it may be perceived as more procedurally fair (McNall & Roch, 2007) In general, timely feedback is considered useful for learning and skill development (Northcraft et al., 2011), suggesting that individual performance may benefit from greater synchronicity in EPM feedback. However, it is also possible that as compared to asynchronous feedback (e.g., a summarized report of aggregated performance behaviors) synchronous feedback delivery may increase evaluative apprehension (i.e., anxiety over negative evaluation) due to more detailed real time behavioral feedback, which in turn may inhibit feedback integration and learning (Green, 1983). ...
... We therefore coded for study methodology as a potential moderator. Empirical EPM research tends to be conducted in one of three ways: 1) experimental studies in which a group of individuals are monitored, or made to think they are monitored, while they work or perform some task (e.g., Becker & Marique, 2014), which we coded as "monitoring experiments" ; 2) experimental studies in which individuals are presented with vignettes or scenarios depicting EPM (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2007), which we coded as "vignette studies"; and 3) non-experimental survey research in which survey questions assess experiences with EPM and relevant work outcomes (e.g., Sprigg & Jackson, 2006), which we coded as "non-experiments". 2 ...
Electronic performance monitoring (EPM), or the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to employee job performance, is a now ubiquitous work practice. We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of the effects of EPM on workers (K = 94 independent samples, N = 23,461), while taking into account the characteristics of the monitoring. Results provide no evidence that EPM improves worker performance. Moreover, findings indicate that the presence of EPM increases worker stress and strain, regardless of the characteristics of monitoring. Findings also demonstrate that organizations that monitor more transparently and less invasively can expect more positive attitudes from workers. Overall, results highlight that even as advances in technology make possible a variety of ways to monitor workers, organizations must continue to consider the psychological component of work.
... Research has demonstrated that purpose, and individual perceptions about purpose, influences reactions to EPM (McNall & Stanton, 2011;Wells et al., 2007). Researchers have examined EPM systems with a variety of purposes, including performance appraisals (e.g., Fenner, Lerch, & Kulik, 1993), punishment (e.g., Bartels & Nordstrom, 2012;McNall & Stanton, 2011), training (e.g., Thompson, Sebastianelli, & Murray, 2009), development (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2009Wells et al., 2007), location tracking (e.g., Shirish, Chandra, & Srivastava, 2017), administration (e.g., Karim, 2015), sustainability (e.g., Bolderdijk, Steg, & Postmes, 2013), safety (e.g., Heflin, 2012), and EPM used for no clear purpose at all (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2007). Our typology organizes these purposes into four categories, described next: (a) performance appraisal, loss prevention, and profit (performance); (b) development, growth, and training (development); (c) administrative and safety (admin and safety); and (d) surveillance and authoritarian control (surveillance). ...
... Results are mixed regarding the effect of performance EPM on attitudes. Several studies have found that performance EPM is associated with increased task motivation and job dedication (Bartels & Nordstrom, 2012;Moorman & Wells, 2003;Stanton & Julian, 2002), greater perceptions of procedural justice (McNall & Roch, 2007;Moorman & Wells, 2003), and increased task satisfaction (Stanton & Julian, 2002). Others have found that performance EPM, particularly when used to punish, is associated with decreased job satisfaction, commitment, and perceived organizational support and increased feelings of stress and burnout (e.g., I. Adams & Mastracci, 2018;Holman et al., 2002;Wells et al., 2007). ...
... Surveillance EPM tends to elicit negative responses in those being monitored. Surveillance EPM has been connected to negative attitudinal outcomes, including decreased fairness and justice perceptions (e.g., Douthitt & Aiello, 2001;McNall & Roch, 2007), decreased satisfaction and mood (e.g., Davidson & Henderson, 2000;Thompson et al., 2009), and increased stress (Mallo, Nordstrom, Bartels, & Traxler, 2007). Moreover, there is little evidence for positive performance effects of surveillance EPM and some evidence for moderate negative performance effects (e.g., Becker & Marique, 2014;Thompson et al., 2009). ...
Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) refers to the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to job performance. The last comprehensive review of the EPM literature was published in 2000. Since 2000, dramatic advances in information technologies have created an environment in which organizations are able to monitor employees to a greater extent and with greater intensity than was previously possible. Moreover, since that time, considerable research has been devoted to understanding the effects of EPM on individual performance and attitudes. Contradictory findings in the EPM literature exist, suggesting that EPM is a multidimensional phenomenon and one for which contextual and psychological variables are pertinent. Thus, we propose a theory-based typology of EPM characteristics and use this typology as a framework to review the EPM literature and identify an agenda for future research and practice.
... Research has demonstrated that purpose, and individual perceptions about purpose, influence reactions to EPM Wells et al., 2007). Researchers have examined EPM systems with a variety of purposes including performance appraisals (e.g., Fenner, Lerch, & Kulik, 1993), punishment (e.g., Bartels & Nordstrom, 2012;, training (e.g., Thompson, Sebastianelli, & Murray, 2009), development (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2009Wells et al., 2007), location tracking (e.g., Shirish, Chandra, & Srivastava, 2017), administration (e.g., Karim, 2015), sustainability (e.g., , safety (e.g., Heflin, 2012), and EPM used for no clear purpose at all (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2007). Our typology organizes these purposes into four categories, described below: 1) performance appraisal, loss prevention, and profit (Performance); ...
... Results are mixed regarding the effect of Performance EPM on attitudes. Several studies have found that Performance EPM is associated with increased task motivation and job 9 dedication (Bartels & Nordstrom, 2012;Moorman & Wells, 2003;Stanton & Julian, 2002), greater perceptions of procedural justice (McNall & Roch, 2007;Moorman & Wells, 2003), and increased task satisfaction (Stanton & Julian, 2002). Others have found that Performance EPM, particularly when used to punish, is associated with decreased job satisfaction, commitment, perceived organizational support, and increased feelings of stress and burnout (e.g., Adams & Mastracci, 2018;Holman et al., 2002;Wells et al., 2007). ...
... Surveillance EPM has been connected to negative attitudinal outcomes including decreased fairness and justice perceptions (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2007), decreased satisfaction and mood (e.g., Davidson & Henderson, 2000;Thompson et al., 2009), and increased stress (Mallo, Nordstrom, Bartels, & Traxler, 2007). Moreover, there is little evidence for positive performance effects of Surveillance EPM, and some evidence for moderate negative performance effects (e.g., Becker & Marique, 2014;Thompson et al., 2009). ...
Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) refers to the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to job performance. The last comprehensive review of the EPM literature was published in 2000. Since 2000, dramatic advances in information technologies have created an environment in which organizations are able to monitor employees to a greater extent and with greater intensity than was previously possible. Moreover, since that time, considerable research has been devoted to understanding the effects of EPM on individual performance and attitudes. Contradictory findings in the EPM literature exist, suggesting that EPM is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, and one for which contextual and psychological variables are pertinent. Thus, we propose a theory-based typology of EPM characteristics and use this typology as a framework to review the EPM literature and identify an agenda for future research and practice. Electronic performance monitoring (EPM) refers to the now-common use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to employee job performance (Bhave, 2014; Stanton, 2000). Advances in information technologies, the reduction of costs of those technologies, and a paradigm shift of work into cyberspace have created an environment in which organizations are able to monitor employees to a greater extent, and with greater intensity, than was previously possible (Holland, Cooper, & Hecker, 2015). Many forms of EPM (e.g., video monitoring, call monitoring, electronic medication administration records, GPS tracking, wearable electronic safety monitors, electronic time clock systems, email and internet usage monitoring) are already widely used, and technologies such as microchip wrist implants (e.g., Astor, 2017) and body heat sensor desk hardware (e.g., Morris, Griffin & Gower, 2017) may be the future of work monitoring. The world has changed dramatically in the twenty years since the last comprehensive review of EPM research was published (Stanton, 2000): for example, portable devices such as smartphones, capable of collecting large amounts of personal and behavioral data about employees, are ubiquitous today, but did not exist in 2000. This rapidly changing environment of information technologies, and the growing prevalence of EPM, make a theory-based and detailed understanding of the effects of EPM critical. Thus, the time is ripe to review and integrate the last two decades worth of EPM research, examine big questions in EPM that have developed over the last twenty years, and identify gaps in our knowledge, with the goal of advancing both theory and practice in this area. PREPRINT Corresponding author: Tara Behrend, [email protected]. 3 We begin our review by briefly discussing how EPM differs from traditional forms of performance monitoring and then discuss modern conceptualizations of EPM as multi-dimensional technologies. We next propose a theory-based typology of EPM characteristics and use the typology as a framework to review the EPM literature, with a particular focus on the past twenty years of research. Finally, based on our review, we identify avenues for future EPM research and implications for organizations. REVIEW METHOD To review the EPM literature, we conducted keyword searches on Google Scholar and cross-checked results with searches in PsycINFO and ABI-Inform. Key words included "electronic monitoring", "electronic performance monitoring", "EPM", "workplace surveillance", "workplace monitoring", and "computer monitoring". We also cross-checked results with references from key articles. We limited our search to peer-reviewed journal articles published in psychology, management, business, and human resource related fields. Although our review largely focuses on empirical research published in the twenty-first century, for the sake of inclusiveness, we did not limit our initial search by time. We next read through article abstracts to ensure content relevance, excluding articles that only focused on broad or traditional monitoring and articles that focused on non-employee EPM (e.g., marketing-focused
... Before SNSs became a potential source for collecting employee information, many employers were monitoring their employees by tracking computer keystrokes, screening visited websites, using swipe cards to monitor locations, logging telephone calls and installing video cameras and webcams in the workplace (McNall and Roch, 2007). Employer use of electronic monitoring has been a common and normally legal practice within management control (Roberts and Roach, 2009), but the involvement of SNSs as a source for monitoring employees adds another facet to the privacy and justice debate (Black et al., 2015). ...
... Thereby, some employers may seek to limit risk and the potential for liability out of respect for how employees view privacy (Mcnall and Roch, 2007) and perceive organizational justice (Chory et al., 2016) and based on concern about how important consequences such as organizational commitment and leave intention may be impacted by negative employee perceptions of employer control and monitoring (Stanton, 2000;Nakra, 2014). In response, firms may opt to establish acceptable policies or procedures. ...
... 2. Literature review 2.1 Electronic monitoring Electronic monitoring is a process in which electronic technologies are used to collect, store, analyze and report employees' behaviors (Mcnall and Roch, 2007). An employer can conduct electronic monitoring in different ways, including software, video surveillance, Global Positioning System and phone monitoring (Chory et al., 2016). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to propose a model to understand how and when employees’ perceived privacy violations and procedural injustice interact to predict intent to leave in the context of the use of social networking sites (SNSs) monitoring.
Design/methodology/approach
This study was conducted in a field setting of Facebook to frame the hypotheses in a structural equation model with partial least squares-structural equation modeling. Variables were measured empirically by administering questionnaires to full-time employed Facebook users who had experienced SNS monitoring.
Findings
The results showed that when an employee believed that he/she had more ability to control his/her SNS information, he/she was less likely to perceive that his/her privacy had been invaded; and when an employee believed that the transparency of the SNS data collection process was higher, he or she was more likely to perceive procedural justice in SNS monitoring.
Research limitations/implications
This research draws attention to the importance of intent to leave in the absence of perceived procedural justice under SNS monitoring, and the partial mediation of the perception of justice or injustice by perceived privacy violations.
Practical implications
For employers, the author recommends that employers come to know how to conduct SNS monitoring and data collection with limited risk of employee loss.
Social implications
For employees, the author suggests that SNS users learn how to control their SNS information and make sure to check their privacy settings on the SNS that they use frequently.
Originality/value
This study provided an initial examination and bridged the gap between employer use of SNS monitoring and employee reactions by opening a mediating and moderating black box that has rarely been assessed.
... Gelişen teknoloji özellikle gelişmiş ülkelerde çalışanların ve işyerlerinin izlenmesi uygulamalarını kolaylaştırmış ve yaygınlaştırmıştır (Center for Business Ethics, 2003;National Workrights Institute Report, 2004;Greenberg et al., 2000;AMA, 2001;2005;2007;Esen, 2005). İşyerlerinin bilgi toplumunun merkezi durumunda olması, izleme faaliyetlerinin yaygınlaşması, gelişen teknoloji, izleme faaliyetlerinin işletmelerde önemli gerilimlere yol açma ihtimali gibi nedenler bu alandaki akademik araştırmaları da artırmıştır (D'Urso, 2006). ...
... İşyerlerinin bilgi toplumunun merkezi durumunda olması, izleme faaliyetlerinin yaygınlaşması, gelişen teknoloji, izleme faaliyetlerinin işletmelerde önemli gerilimlere yol açma ihtimali gibi nedenler bu alandaki akademik araştırmaları da artırmıştır (D'Urso, 2006). Bu artışla birlikte izleme faaliyetleri hukuki, ahlaki, davranışsal ve örgütsel açılardan incelenmeye başlanmıştır (Townsend ve Bennet, 2003;Martin ve Freeman, 2003;Guffey ve West, 1996;Bennet ve Locke, 1998;Nolan, 2003;McNall ve Roch, 2007). ...
... İzleme oranı kullanılan yöntemlere göre değişmektedir. Özellikle internet, e-posta ve bilgisayar kullanımının izlenmesinde izleme oranı %60'lara çıkmaktadır (Erdemir ve Koç, 2006aKoç, ve 2006bHodson vd., 1999;Esen, 2005;AMA, 2001;2005;2007). ...
ZET İşyerlerinin ve çalışanların izlenmesine yönelik faaliyetler gelişen teknolojik imkanlarla birlikte giderek yaygınlaşmaktadır. İşletmeler çeşitli araç ve yöntemler kullanarak çalışanlarının performanslarını, davranışlarını ve kişisel özelliklerini izleyebilmektedirler. İşletmeler tarafından güvenlik, adalet, yasal zorunluluklar, kalite ve verimlilik artırma gibi gerekçelerle yapılan izleme faaliyeti, işletmelerde mahremiyet, motivasyon, performans ve sağlık gibi konularda sorunlara yol açabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada işyeri ve çalışanlara yönelik izleme faaliyetlerinin Türkiye'deki durumu, işletmelerin insan kaynakları yöneticileri bakış açısından incelenmiştir. Çalışma sonuçları telefon, cep telefonu, bilgisayar, internet ve sohbet programlarının kullanımlarının izlenmesi ve kamera kullanımının diğer yöntemlere göre daha yaygın olduğunu göstermektedir. Pilot bir çalışma olarak kabul edilebilecek araştırmanın sonuçları, özellikle işletme yönetiminin temsilcileri olarak insan kaynakları yöneticilerinin izleme faaliyetlerine yönelik tutumları açısından asil-vekil kuramı çerçevesinde tartışılabilecek önemli ipuçları da sunmaktadır. Anahtar Sözcükler: İşyeri izleme; Çalışan izleme, Elektronik izleme. 1. GİRİŞ Bilgi toplumunda çalışma ilişkilerinin değişen yapısı; üretim teknolojileri, çalışma biçimleri, birey beklentileri, sosyal, kültürel ve ekonomik yapıdaki değişim gibi çeşitli boyutlar bağlamında tartışılagelmektedir (Keser, 2002). Özellikle teknolojik gelişmelerin öncülüğünde gerçekleşen dönüşüm gerek sosyal alanda gerekse çalışma yaşamında bir yandan daha özgür, katılımcı ve verimli bir gelecek vaat ederken; kontrolü, disiplini ve gözetimi kurumsallaştıran yönüyle de özel yaşamı daraltarak tedirginlik uyandırmaktadır (Bozkurt, 2005). Gelişen teknoloji özellikle gelişmiş ülkelerde çalışanların ve işyerlerinin izlenmesi uygulamalarını kolaylaştırmış ve yaygınlaştırmıştır (). İşyerlerinin bilgi toplumunun merkezi durumunda olması, izleme faaliyetlerinin yaygınlaşması, gelişen teknoloji, izleme faaliyetlerinin işletmelerde önemli gerilimlere yol açma ihtimali gibi nedenler bu alandaki akademik araştırmaları da artırmıştır (D'Urso, 2006). Bu artışla birlikte izleme faaliyetleri hukuki, ahlaki, davranışsal ve örgütsel açılardan incelenmeye başlanmıştır (Townsend ve
... Attitudinal research has primarily focused on how EPM influences organizational justice and perceived fairness. This line of research has suggested EPM may be perceived as more procedurally just, but less interpersonally just and may induce feelings of invasion of privacy (McNall and Roch 2007). In line with organizational justice research, EPM research has demonstrated that providing employees with voice (or the ability to participate in making decisions about electronic monitoring) may decrease these concerns (Alge 2001). ...
... Such research may build upon existing findings in the EPM literature that draws from an organizational justice model. The organizational justice and the EPM literature have focused on perceived fairness (specifically procedural and interpersonal; e.g., McNall and Roch 2007). This line of research has shown that EPM may be perceived as more procedurally just but less interpersonally just and less private (McNall and Roch 2007). ...
... The organizational justice and the EPM literature have focused on perceived fairness (specifically procedural and interpersonal; e.g., McNall and Roch 2007). This line of research has shown that EPM may be perceived as more procedurally just but less interpersonally just and less private (McNall and Roch 2007). Further, research has shown that allowing employees to participate in the monitoring process (i.e., providing them with voice) and monitoring only job-relevant activities decreases these concerns (Alge 2001). ...
Purpose
We sought to provide empirical insight and develop theory for a new organizational phenomenon: remote proctoring for Internet-based tests. We examined whether this technology is effective at decreasing cheating and whether it has unintended effects on test-taker reactions, performance, or selection procedures.
Design/methodology/approach
Participants (582) were randomly assigned to a webcam proctored or honor code condition and completed two (one searchable, one non-searchable) cognitive ability tests online. Complete data were collected from 295 participants. We indirectly determined levels of cheating by examining the pattern of test-score differences across the two conditions. We directly measured dropout rates, test performance, and participants’ perceived tension and invasion of privacy.
Findings
The use of remote proctoring was associated with more negative test-taker reactions and decreased cheating. Remote proctoring did not directly affect test performance or interact with individual differences to predict test performance or test-taker reactions.
Implications
Technological advances in selection should be accompanied by empirical evidence. Although remote proctoring may be effective at decreasing cheating, it may also have unintended effects on test-taker reactions. By outlining an initial classification of remote proctoring technology, we contribute to the theoretical understanding of technology-enhanced assessment, while providing timely insight into the practice of Internet-based testing.
Originality/value
We provide timely insight into the development and evaluation of remotely proctored tests. The current study utilizes a unique randomized experimental design in order to indirectly determine levels of cheating across two conditions. Following the results of the current study, we outline an integrative model for future research on remotely proctored tests.
... This can limit the validity of a study comparison, since differences in, for example, privacy reaction cannot be clearly attributed to the different EPM systems. Only six studies have specifically manipulated different degrees of invasiveness of EPM systems within a study with respect to privacy (McNall & Roch, 2007;O'Donnel et al., 2010;Princi & Krämer, 2019;Sayre & Dahling, 2016;Zweig & Webster, 2002, 2003. For example, McNall and Roch (2007) found that EPM via video camera was perceived as the most privacy-invasive compared to computer-based monitoring and telephone monitoring. ...
... Only six studies have specifically manipulated different degrees of invasiveness of EPM systems within a study with respect to privacy (McNall & Roch, 2007;O'Donnel et al., 2010;Princi & Krämer, 2019;Sayre & Dahling, 2016;Zweig & Webster, 2002, 2003. For example, McNall and Roch (2007) found that EPM via video camera was perceived as the most privacy-invasive compared to computer-based monitoring and telephone monitoring. Princi and Krämer (2019) manipulated the control and the amount of private data tracked by health badges (e.g., hours sitting, vs. location vs. physiological pain data) and found that tracking actual physiological health data relates positively to perceived privacy risks. ...
Digitalization enables continuous monitoring of not only work processes but also employees’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral activities. This study investigated how different types of electronic monitoring affect employees’ privacy and reactance and how social norms regarding electronic monitoring (opposition or support) shape these reactions. In a scenario study, we found higher privacy invasion and reactance when not solely screen time was monitored, but screen activity via screenshots or social interactions via face reader. The social norm did not influence these relations. However, we found strong compliance with the social norm of rejecting electronic monitoring, indicating a strong negative attitude toward electronic monitoring. The results suggest that invasiveness of electronic performance monitoring beyond screen time monitoring is perceived as high privacy-invasive and comparatively reactance-evoking.
... There is some evidence that the relationship between EPM use and perceptions of privacy invasion may vary based on whether non-work-related information is captured (e.g,. McNall & Roch, 2007), but the pandemic presents opportunities to better understand the monitoring characteristics that individuals perceive as unacceptable, particularly when monitoring occurs in their home, and how they may respond to such intrusions. ...
... Individuals tend to feel their privacy is most intruded upon when monitoring is secretive (e.g., Zweig & Webster, 2003) or is used for surveillance purposes (i.e., monitoring with no clear purpose beyond a desire to collect information or assert control; Ravid et al., 2020). As such, organizations deciding to start using monitoring systems strictly out of fear that their employees will abuse affordances associated with remote work are likely to be perceived as privacy intrusive and may be met with decreased perceptions of procedural justice (McNall & Roch, 2007) and job satisfaction (Thompson et al., 2009) while also creating a more stressful work environment (Mallo et al., 2007) during an already highly stressful time. Moreover, there is scant evidence to suggest that EPM for surveillance purposes improves performance and some evidence for moderate negative performance effects (Becker & Marique, 2014). ...
... However, the pervasiveness of information technologies and previous major incidents have made individuals even more sensitive to potential privacy infringements in recent years (e.g., Dinev, McConnell, & Smith, 2016). Perusal of the literature on electronic monitoring and ubiquitous surveillance also shows that monitoring is stressful for employees and individuals (e.g., McNall & Roch, 2007;Posey et al., 2011). The underlying logic is that the capability of technologies to collect personal information about individuals and their behavior enables monitoring-which may be inconsistent with and violate individuals' values increasing their concerns over loss of privacy. ...
... Consequently, they are more prone to violate relationship norms and expectations such that their social functioning is compromised, increasing the likelihood of interpersonal conflicts (Feeney, 2002). Indeed, previous research on electronic monitoring and surveillance has found that invasive monitoring can increase anxiety, antisocial behaviors, and social conflicts because of nagging privacy concerns (McNall & Roch, 2007;Oulasvirta et al., 2012). ...
With the growing proliferation of Smart Home Assistants (SHAs), digital services are increasingly pervading people's private households. Through their intrusive features, SHAs threaten to not only increase individual users' strain but also impair social relationships at home. However, while previous research has predominantly focused on technology features' detrimental effects on employee strain at work, there is still a lack of understanding of the adverse effects of digital devices on individuals and their social relations at home. In addition, we know little about how these deleterious effects can be mitigated by using IT artifact-based design features. Drawing on the person-technology fit model, self-regulation theory and the literature on anthropomorphism, we used the synergistic properties of an online experiment (N=136) and a follow-up field survey with a representative sample of SHA users (N=214) to show how and why SHAs' intrusive technology features cause strain and interpersonal conflicts at home. Moreover, we demonstrate how SHAs' anthropomorphic design features can attenuate the harmful effects of intrusive technology features on strain by shaping users' feelings of privacy invasion. More broadly, our study sheds light on the largely under-investigated psychological and social consequences of the digitization of the individual at home.
... Most notably, individuals who believe they cannot "control their privacy information" in SNS screening will perceive higher levels of privacy violation (Thomas, Rothschild, & Donegan, 2015), which in turn result in lower levels of procedural justice (McNall & Roch, 2007), whereas the perception of procedural justice will be determined by the "transparency of the data collection" during the screening process (Black et al., 2015). Accordingly, this study will add these two moderating variables to the research model and investigate how the effects work together. ...
... In line with Alge's (2001) privacy-procedural justice model, individuals who believe that they can control their privacy in electronic screening will perceive higher levels of procedural justice in the workplace. For example, a candidate may perceive that his/her privacy has been invaded by an employer because he/she is forced to reveal private SNS information during the selection process (Thomas et al., 2015), which may result in his/her perception of procedural injustice (McNall & Roch, 2007). Leonard (2011) reported that some candidates may not have Facebook accounts, causing unfairness and inconsistency across personnel selection with the use of this information. ...
This study examined passive job seekers’ reactions to pre-employment screening on Facebook. We found that the passive job seekers whose Facebook was screened by a potential employer felt their privacy had been invaded, resulting in lower both procedural justice and the job-pursuit intentions throughout the result of PLS-SEM analysis. Moreover, the perception of procedural justice partially mediated the relationship between perceived privacy violation and job pursuit intention. Although organization attractiveness was associated with job pursuit intention, it did not have significant moderating effect in this study.
... Most notably, individuals who believe they cannot "control their privacy information" in SNS screening will perceive higher levels of privacy violation (Thomas, Rothschild, & Donegan, 2015), which in turn result in lower levels of procedural justice (McNall & Roch, 2007), whereas the perception of procedural justice will be determined by the "transparency of the data collection" during the screening process (Black et al., 2015). Accordingly, this study will add these two moderating variables to the research model and investigate how the effects work together. ...
... In line with Alge's (2001) privacy-procedural justice model, individuals who believe that they can control their privacy in electronic screening will perceive higher levels of procedural justice in the workplace. For example, a candidate may perceive that his/her privacy has been invaded by an employer because he/she is forced to reveal private SNS information during the selection process (Thomas et al., 2015), which may result in his/her perception of procedural injustice (McNall & Roch, 2007). Leonard (2011) reported that some candidates may not have Facebook accounts, causing unfairness and inconsistency across personnel selection with the use of this information. ...
... Thus, it is best to alert employees that EPM is happening in general and to not increase stress perceptions by continually reminding them of monitoring events. In general, employees may perceive some degree of electronic monitoring as procedurally fair, but invasive nonetheless (McNall & Roch, 2007). Some EPM systems are more invasive than others and are differentiated by whether they are active or passive (Willford et al., 2017). ...
... Feelings of privacy invasion(McNall & Roch, 2007;McNall & Stanton, 2011;Stanton, 2000a): ...
From security cameras to GPS tracking systems, nearly 80% of organizations use some type of electronic performance monitoring (EPM). EPM uses technology to gather, store, analyze, and report employee behavior (e.g., productivity, use of company time, incivility). The objective, real-time data that EPM systems collect can be used for performance appraisal, training and development, logistical tracking, wellness programs, employee safety, and more. Despite the organizational benefits of EPM, these systems can have adverse effects on employee satisfaction, organizational commitment, fairness perceptions, and employee behavior. Research provides evidence, however, that these downfalls can be mitigated by implementing these systems with employee attitudes and privacy perceptions in mind. Using theory and empirical research evidence, we offer five recommendations for maximizing the positive effects and minimizing the negative effects of EPM: (1) Be transparent with employees about EPM use, (2) be aware of all potential employee reactions to being monitored, (3) use EPM for learning and development rather than deterrence, (4) restrict EPM to only work-related behaviors, and (5) consider organizational makeup when implementing an EPM system.
... For example, collecting information that is not related to job performance is likely to be seen as an invasion of privacy and unfair (Ambrose & Adler, 2000); however, such collection may be inadvertent or necessary while monitoring performance (i.e., all emails sent and websites browsed need to be tracked). People may view greater violations of procedural justice when there is greater potential to gather non-work-related information (McNall & Roch, 2007). ...
... Second, technology may influence procedural justice judgments in that it can influence consistency and opportunity to perform (Alge, 2001;McNall & Roch, 2007). On the positive side, technology can increase fairness perceptions when processes are digitally administered, evaluations are automated, and individuals can verify information, as the possibility of human bias and error is removed. ...
We forecast how HRM practice and HR research on fairness in the workplace will need to change in light of several specific global workplace trends, namely, increases in workplace diversity and globalization, technology mediated relationships, individualized psychological contracts, and service-related jobs. After describing these trends, we illustrate how the meaning of fairness and worker expectations regarding fairness may be changing in response. We further discuss how those changes will impact HR management.
... Although the extant literature has highlighted the role that supervisors play in electronic monitoring systems and has implied negative consequences may accrue to them as well as employees (Bhave, 2014;McNall & Roch, 2009;Ravid et al., 2020;Stanton, 2000), it is not yet clear if or how electronic monitoring "affect(s) the relational aspects of managerial positions" (Ravid et al., 2020, p. 115). This is concerning, because prior research demonstrates that monitored employees often experience a loss of autonomy, felt trust, and perceived value (Alge, 2001;Anteby & Chan, 2018;Lawrence & Robinson, 2007;McNall & Roch, 2007Thiel et al., 2023;Weibel et al., 2016;Wells et al., 2007), psychological states that may have implications for how employees relate to management. Further, accumulated evidence shows that an employee's relationship with their supervisor strongly impacts their level of task performance (Martin et al., 2016) and the extent to which they refrain from production deviance (Thiel et al., 2018)-the very behaviors electronic monitoring is designed to positively shape. ...
Changing workplace dynamics have led employers to increasingly adopt electronic monitoring technologies so supervisors can observe and ensure employee compliance and productivity—outcomes the monitoring literature has long supported. Yet, employee productivity depends on strong leader–member social exchange, and the relational consequences of electronic monitoring for supervisor and employee are not well understood. To help resolve this tension within the monitoring literature and add understanding in regard to the effects of electronic monitoring on employee productivity, we use social exchange theory to examine the implications of electronic monitoring for the supervisor–employee exchange relationship. We theorize that electronic monitoring facilitates (rather than inhibits) production deviance and inhibits (rather than facilitates) task performance by undermining the exchange of social benefits and, consequently, eroding leader–member social exchange. Yet, we also hypothesize that supervisors who give performance monitoring data back to employees in a developmental way (i.e., developmental feedback) compensate for the loss of certain social benefits, and, thereby, buffer the negative relational consequences of electronic monitoring. Across an experimental online study and a field study, we find converging support for our predictions and rule out alternative explanations. This research provides timely insights into how to effectively use electronic monitoring without promoting unintended consequences.
... The type of monitoring used may also influence how employees respond to it (Jeske and Kapasi, 2017). For example, research conducted by McNall and Roch (2007) found that video surveillance and 'eavesdropping' (recording of and listening to telephone conversations) tended to be perceived more negatively, in terms of interpersonal justice 16 and the invasion of personal privacy, than computer monitoring, which was defined in the study as keystroke recording, capturing only work-related computer activities. Workplace well-being ...
New digital technologies have expanded the possibilities of employee monitoring and surveillance, both in and outside the workplace. In the context of the increasing digitalisation of work, there are many issues related to employee monitoring that warrant the attention of policymakers. As well as the often-cited privacy and ethical concerns, there are also important implications for worker–employer relations, as digitally enabled monitoring and surveillance inevitably shift power dynamics in the workplace. Based on input from the Network of Eurofound Correspondents, this report explores the regulatory approaches to workplace monitoring in Europe, and the many challenges arising from the use of new digital technologies. Drawing from empirical and qualitative research, the report also provides some insight into the extent of employee monitoring in Europe and the implications for job quality and work organisation.
... As in Lavelle et al. (2021), the lowest-loading interpersonal justice item in Colquitt's study was not included in the survey. Similar three-item interpersonal justice measures (with other referents) have been used in prior research (e.g., Bell et al., 2006;Cole et al., 2010;McNall & Roch, 2007;Porter et al., 2004;Shafiro et al., 2007). An example item was "Customers treat me in a polite manner." ...
Recent research has uncovered the debilitating effects that customers’ unfair treatment of service workers has for both employees and their employers. These studies have largely explained the effects of customer mistreatment through a conservation of resources (COR) theory lens, arguing that customer injustice depletes the regulatory resources of service employees, thereby impairing their well‐being and ability to perform their jobs effectively. In our paper, we contend that aspects of employee‐customer social exchange should also be considered, and that such relational processes are critical above and beyond COR effects. After formulating our theoretical model, we offer time‐lagged data from a field study of service workers (N = 337) supporting our hypothesis that the negative relationship between customer injustice and employee citizenship behavior directed toward customers is sequentially mediated by perceived customer support and customer commitment, respectively, over and above COR effects. Incorporating insights from the customer service literature, we further demonstrate the role of display rule perceptions as a moderator of these sequential indirect effects.
... Interactional justice is further concerned with relational processes and this form of justice is entangled within expectations that trust, respect and dignity will be upheld in efforts to balance risk and security (McNall & Roch, 2007;Steeves, 2008). ...
The COVID-19 crisis brought about increased surveillance, restrictions on movement, loss of freedoms, and the shutdown of ‘normal’ everyday life in Aotearoa New Zealand. Complex interplays of power, choice, and coercion in relation to people ceding their privacy and freedom to the state in return for the potential of health and economic security were brought to the fore. This chapter explores these dialectical tensions around risks and [in]securities in civil society using the multi-faceted lens offered by Assemblage Theory, and concepts of the Social Contract. The ‘Psycurity Accord’ offers an explanatory tool for understanding trade-offs between various risks and (in)securities, and issues of privacy and freedom. With references to different news updates regarding the evolving crisis, we consider how trade-offs around risks and [in]securities are never fixed and are re-assembled as new events occur, and the situation evolves. New orders of authority emerge from (re)alignments of different interest groups and (re)inscriptions around risk, security, freedom, and privacy.
... As in Lavelle et al. (2021), the lowest-loading interpersonal justice item in Colquitt's study was not included in the survey. Similar three-item interpersonal justice measures (with other referents) have been used in prior research (e.g., Bell et al., 2006;Cole et al., 2010;McNall & Roch, 2007;Porter et al., 2004;Shafiro et al., 2007). An example item was "Customers treat me in a polite manner." ...
... Interactional justice is further concerned with relational processes and this form of justice is entangled within expectations that trust, respect and dignity will be upheld in efforts to balance risk and security (McNall & Roch, 2007;Steeves, 2008). ...
... Individuals tend to feel their privacy is most intruded upon when monitoring is secretive (e.g., Zweig & Webster, 2003) or is used for surveillance purposes (i.e., monitoring with no clear purpose beyond a desire to collect information or assert control; Ravid, Tomczak, White & Behrend, 2020). As such, organizations deciding to start using monitoring systems strictly out of fear that their employees will abuse affordances associated with remote work are likely to be perceived as privacy intrusive and may be met with decreased perceptions of procedural justice (McNall & Roch, 2007) and job satisfaction (Thompson, Sebastianelli, & Murray, 2009), while also creating a more stressful work environment (Mallo, Nordstrom, Bartels, & Traxler, 2007) during an already highly stressful time. Moreover, there is scant evidence to suggest that EPM for surveillance purposes improves performance and some evidence for moderate negative performance effects (Becker & Marique, 2014). ...
Commentary to be published in forthcoming Issue of Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice
... For example, Bhave (2014) found that supervisor use of EPM was positively related to OCBs, which might be because increasing OCBs was viewed as a form of impression management that was now being tracked. For some technologies, EPM used continuously is often perceived as surveillance (Ravid et al., 2019), which is associated with negative justice perceptions (McNall & Roch, 2007) and increased stress in older workers (Mallo et al., 2007). However, when it is used for a purpose which employees welcome, such as employee development or safety (Ravid et al., 2019), some types of EPM have been shown to positively influence task, contextual, and overall performance ratings (Bartels & Nordstrom, 2012;Bhave, 2014;Fenner et al., 1993;Jeske, 2011;Stanton & Julian, 2002). ...
Despite the centrality of technology to understanding how humans in organizations think, feel, and behave, researchers in organizational psychology and organizational behavior even now often avoid theorizing about it. In our review, we identify four major paradigmatic approaches in theoretical approaches to technology, which typically occur in sequence: technology-as-context, technology-as-causal, technology-as-instrumental, and technology-as-designed. Each paradigm describes a typically implicit philosophical orientation toward technology as demonstrated through choices about theory development and research design. Of these approaches, one is unnecessarily limited and two are harmful oversimplifications that we contend have systematically weakened the quality of theory across our discipline. As such, we argue that to avoid creating impractical and even inaccurate theory, researchers must explicitly model technology design. To facilitate this shift, we define technology, present our paradigmatic framework, explain the framework's importance, and provide recommendations across five key domains: personnel selection, training and development, performance management and motivation, groups and teams, and leadership.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 8 is January 21, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Similar results were observed for awareness monitoring systems (i.e., systems that are used to perform collaborative work in geographically distributed teams; Zweig & Webster, 2002) and location sensing technologies (i.e., devices relying usually on GPS, RFID, and other telecommunication technologies to provide real-time location tracking of employees; ). The type of monitoring system used could also influence perceptions of privacy invasion, with computer monitoring seen to be least invasive, followed by visual surveillance (typically via video cameras) and finally eavesdropping (via telephonic equipment to track telephone discussions or messages on voicemail; McNall & Roch, 2007). Finally, participants reported lower privacy concerns when they anticipated that electronic monitoring of their behaviors would yield them financial gains (e.g., paying less rent on dorm rooms, paying lower car insurance premiums, and earning a bonus); conversely, their privacy concerns were greater if they perceived electronic monitoring to generate additional costs (Bolderdijk, Steg, & Postmes, 2013). ...
Privacy in the workplace is a pivotal concern for employees and employers. Employees expect to be in control of the personal information and access they provide to the organization. Employers, however, expect extensive information regarding their employees as well as extensive access to employees’ presence. The chasm between these two often competing expectations has been magnified by regulatory and technological trends. We begin the review by integrating viewpoints from multiple disciplines to disentangle definitions of privacy and to delineate the privacy contexts of information privacy and work environment privacy. We then identify the key stakeholders of privacy in the workplace and describe their interests. This discussion serves as a platform for our stakeholders’ privacy calculus model, which in turn provides a framework within which we review empirical findings on workplace privacy from organizational research and related disciplines and from which we identify gaps in the existing research. We then advance an extensive research agenda. Finally, we draw attention to emerging technologies and laws that have far-reaching implications for employees and employers. Our review provides a road map for researchers and practitioners to navigate the contested terrain of workplace privacy.
... In distinguishing the effects of EPM and traditional monitoring upon fairness, McNall and Roch (2007) revealed that computer monitoring is perceived to be the most procedurally just, whereas conventional face-to-face monitoring is deemed the most interpersonally just and least invasive of employees' privacy. Stanton and Sarkar-Barney (2003) compared the effects of EPM and face-to-face monitoring and found that electronically monitored groups exhibited higher-quality performance than the traditionally monitored group. ...
The continued rise of digitalization allows employees to be highly flexible regarding when and where to work, both inside and outside the traditional office, a trend captured in the term new ways of working (NWW). With NWW, increased employee flexibility changes the relationship between supervisor and employees, thereby posing both benefits and new challenges for leadership. For supervisors, NWW particularly complicate the nevertheless necessary task of exercising control over employees. In NWW supervisors often rely on electronic performance monitoring techniques as an alternative to traditional forms of supervisory control. Yet, since employees often perceive electronic monitoring as a signal of their supervisors’ distrust, these new monitoring systems can harm the employee–supervisor relationship. At the same time, by accepting the control and monitoring behavior of their supervisors, employees can form high-quality relationships with supervisors, which can in turn translate into greater productivity and mutual trust. By more closely tracing this process, the present chapter investigates how supervisors in NWW can effectively supervise employees by maintaining control while still expressing trust.
... In other words, research on organizational privacy suggests that invasion of privacy fully mediate the effect of justice rules (e.g. relevancy and propriety of questions) on fairness perceptions (Eddy et al., 1999;McNall and Roch, 2007). ...
Purpose
– Building on organizational justice and privacy literatures, the purpose of this paper is to test a model capturing the impacts of potentially inappropriate/discriminatory interview questions on job applicant perceptions and behavioral intentions in a developing economy context with a multicultural workforce.
Design/methodology/approach
– An experimental design using senior undergraduate students (n=221) seeking or about to seek jobs in the United Arab Emirates was used to examine interviewees’ reactions to inappropriate/discriminatory interview questions. A questionnaire was used to collect the data. Structural equation modeling and bootstrapping were used for data analysis and hypothesis testing.
Findings
– This study demonstrates that inappropriate/discriminatory interview questions influence privacy invasion perceptions, which in turn influence job applicants’ fairness perceptions and behavioral intentions. This study also demonstrates that privacy invasion perceptions fully mediate the effect of inappropriate/discriminatory employment interview questions on fairness perceptions. Moreover, the findings show that privacy invasion directly and indirectly, via fairness perceptions, influence litigation intentions. On the other hand, findings of this study indicate that privacy invasion influence organizational attractiveness and recommendation intentions only indirectly, via fairness perceptions.
Originality/value
– This is the first study to examine the impact of inappropriate/discriminatory interview questions on applicant reactions in a developing economy context with social, cultural, and legal environment that is different from those prevailing in developed Western societies. This study demonstrates that privacy invasion is an important mechanism to understand job applicant reactions to inappropriate interview questions.
... In our own work, we found that the use of webcams during cognitive ability testing resulted in testers feeling as if their privacy was invaded and withdrawing from the study (Karim et al., 2014). Others' research supports this finding and links EPM to other negative attitudinal outcomes, such as decreased satisfaction and personal control (McNall & Roch, 2007;Stanton & Barnes-Farrell, 1996). As such, it is myopic to consider privacy only in terms of data security. ...
Guzzo, Fink, King, Tonidandel, and Landis (2015) provide a clear overview of the implications of conducting research using big data. One element we believe was overlooked, however, was an individual-level perspective on big data; that is, what impact does this sort of data collection have on the individuals being studied? As psychologists, the ethics and impact of big data collection from workers should be at the forefront of our minds. In this reply, we use years of research on electronic monitoring and tracking to provide evidence that an individual-level perspective is an essential part of the discussion surrounding industrial–organizational psychology and big data. Specifically, we examine electronic performance monitoring (EPM) literature to identify how the widespread, pervasive collection of employee data affects employees’ attitudes and behaviors.
... This has aroused interest in researchers and led them to make empirical studies about it (D'Urso, 2006). Studies on employee monitoring are mostly seen to be realized in juridical, ethical, behavioral and organizational domains (Townsend & Bennet, 2003;Martin & Freeman, 2003;Guffey & West, 1996;Bennet & Locke, 1998;Nolan, 2003;McNall & Roch, 2007;in Erdemir, 2008). ...
Knowledge sharing in an organization is an important part of knowledge management and its success or failure will be directly related to how much knowledge could be used by employees. Unfortunately there are some de-motivators in work environment that prevent employees to share knowledge with each others. This paper intends to interrogate employee monitoring as one of the de-motivators of knowledge sharing in organizations. In an insecure work environment where employee behaviors are monitored employees may not intend to share their knowledge with others because of confidentiality, job insecurity, mistrust. Therefore, the aim of this research is to examine the relationship between organizational knowledge sharing and employee monitoring. Employees who have negative attitude against employee monitoring complained that the implementation of electronic monitoring in their workplace caused paced work, lack of involvement, reduced task variety and clarity, reduced peer social support, reduced supervisory support, fear of job loss, routinized work activity, and lack of control over tasks. It is assumed that there is a relationship between negative attitudes against employee monitoring and knowledge sharing in organizations. This empirical research is realized by surveying 122 employees in banking sector. In this study, with inspiration taken from the related studies in literature, the relationship between two variables was tried to be identified by conducting required statistical analysis of questionnaires applied to employees.
... Information collected during online training is considerably more objective and less likely to be subject to biases and monitored individuals may lack social cues and feedback regarding the information being collected (Stanton, 2000). This may be why computer-based monitoring may be more perceived as more procedurally-, but less interpersonally-, just than face-to-face supervision (McNall & Roch, 2007). As such, there is reason to believe that EPM implemented during training may have more pronounced or unique effects than traditional instructor-based monitoring. ...
In order to remain effective in an increasingly digital workplace, many organizations have shifted towards the automatic and electronic collection of employee performance data. For example, employees completing computer-based training may be monitored to collect objective performance information for either developmental or administrative purposes. Though this allows for more objective employee feedback and evaluation, little remains known about the effect of pervasive electronic monitoring on key self-regulatory processes which underlie learning. This study was designed with this gap in mind and explores the relationship between electronic monitoring type (developmental or administrative), goals, and feedback perceptions, feedback usage, and learning. In order to understand this relationship, the current study extends classical theories of performance management and self-regulation to supplement emerging research on electronic monitoring. Results of this experiment suggest that monitoring purpose does not have a strong impact on state goals. Monitoring purpose, however, may affect feedback perceptions. Using the results of this study, evidence-based recommendations can be made for the theoretical understanding and practical of monitored training.
... 221). The accelerated development of a variety of inexpensive electronic devices (e.g., computer networks, wireless technologies) enables the collection of data (e.g., keystroke recording, Internet monitoring) that would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain through physical monitoring (McNall & Roch, 2007;Stanton & Barnes-Farrell, 1996). Thus, employers who choose to monitor training activities potentially have more information at their disposal when the monitoring occurs online, rather than in person. ...
Web-based training programs commonly capture data reflecting e-learners' activities, yet little is known about the effects of this practice. Social facilitation theory suggests that it may adversely affect people by heightening distraction and arousal. This experiment examined the issue by asking volunteers to complete a Web-based training program designed to teach online search skills. Half of participants were told their training activities would be tracked; the others received no information about monitoring. Results supported the hypothesized effects on satisfaction, performance, and mental workload (measured via heart rate variability). Explicit awareness of monitoring appeared to tax e-learners mentally during training, thereby hindering performance on a later skills test. Additionally, e-learners reported less satisfaction with the training when monitoring was made salient.
... 74). Indeed, McNall and Roch (2007) found that participants viewed surveillance devices as more invasive than computer monitoring devices, perhaps because they lead to a greater sense of uncontrollability due to the types of activities monitored. ...
Purpose
This study explored reactions to location sensing technologies (LSTs) which enable organizations to track the location and movements of employees, even off-site. In particular, we examined the relationships among two monitoring characteristics (i.e., purpose and control), perceptions of privacy invasion, and monitoring fairness.
Design/Methodology/Approach
This study employed a 2 (purpose) × 2 (control) factorial design using 208 college students. Study hypotheses were tested using hierarchical regression.
Findings
The ability to control the location sensing device was related to monitoring fairness via privacy invasion, but no support was found for monitoring purpose.
Implications
The results underscore the importance of giving employees a sense of control over monitoring and providing them with “protected spaces” where monitoring can be avoided.
Originality/Value
This study offers the first examination of attitudes toward location sensing technologies.
Algorithmic HR systems are becoming a more prevalent interface between organizations and employees. Yet little research has examined how automated HR processes impact employee motivation. In a three‐wave study ( N Time1 = 401; N Time2 = 379; N Time3 = 303), we investigated the motivational effects of HR systems that automatically capture—and make decisions based on—employee performance, and whether these effects depend on employee attributions regarding the organization's intended use of its automated HR metric system. Additionally, we test whether these motivational states affect employee task prioritization and emotional exhaustion. Results show that employees whose organizations use algorithmic HR systems, and who also attribute managerial control as intent to that system, experience higher levels of extrinsic motivation at work. This, in turn, predicts greater prioritization of metricized tasks and de‐prioritization of non‐metricized tasks. Conversely, employees who believe the purpose of algorithmic HR systems is to provide them with constructive feedback are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation, leading to reduced feelings of emotional exhaustion, greater prioritization of metricized tasks, but reduced non‐metricized behavior de‐prioritization. These results illustrate the critical importance of employee sensemaking around algorithmic HR systems as a precursor to the impact of such systems on employee motivation, behavior, and well‐being.
In the era of digital economy, a large number of organizations begin to use new digital technologies to collect employees' personal information data for digital management. The invasion of the information privacy of employees may cause the hostile situation of employees and have a negative impact. In view of this, this study aims to explore the negative impact of employees' perceived invasion of information privacy on employee workplace well-being. Drawing on the conservation of resources theory, this study argues that perceived invasion of information privacy enhances employee job stress, thus reducing employee workplace well-being, while employee job autonomy weakens the above negative effects. Through collecting 346 three-stage employee data, this study finds that: (1) perceived invasion of information privacy has a significant negative impact on employee workplace well-being; (2) employee job stress mediates the relationship between perceived invasion of information privacy and employee workplace well-being; (3) employee job autonomy significantly weakens the indirect effect of perceived invasion of information privacy and employee workplace well-being through employee job stress. That is, the higher the employee job autonomy, the weaker the indirect effect of perceived invasion of information privacy and employee workplace well-being. The findings promote our understanding of the negative results of information privacy invasion and provide a warning for organizations using digital technology to collect employee information privacy for digital management.
Artificial intelligence of things technology provides smart surveillance capability for personal data digitalization. It will invade individuals’ information, physical, and social spaces and raise contextual privacy concerns while providing personalized services, which has not been explored in previous research. We theorize three types of smart surveillance and identify three subdimensions of contextual personalization and privacy concerns. Grounded in surveillance theory and personalization-privacy paradox, we examined the different trade-offs of contextual personalization and privacy concerns underlying the three types of smart surveillance on users’ behavioral intention in smart home context. The results also indicated that transparency can lessen the trade-off effects.
With the prevalence of working from home, more and more organizations are adopting monitoring methods to keep track of their employees’ work activities electronically. Understanding how employees respond to various monitoring methods and what factors affect their attitudes and perceptions towards monitoring is important to maintain a healthy employee-employer relationship and productivity in workplaces. To explore employees’ perceptions, concerns, attitudes and knowledge of commonly used monitoring methods, we conducted an online survey with 197 remote workers. We found that the use of cameras, microphones and screen recorders were among the most disapproved monitoring methods that would cause participants to refuse a job offer, promotion or even quit their current job. Our qualitative findings indicated that the most commonly cited reasons behind their disapproval were concerns about invasion of privacy and safety. Participants were found to be more opposed to remote monitoring than monitoring at office/location. We also identified factors influencing employee satisfaction, employee loyalty, faith in intentions of management, intention to disclose, trust in employers, and openness to employer monitoring. Implications of our findings towards better monitoring practices are also discussed in the paper.
Identity leadership helps group members both to reduce their subjective uncertainty about what to think and how to behave and to obtain a positive social identity. In organizations, procedural justice too supports group members' positive social identity. According to the Uncertainty Identity theory, in uncertain contexts, the motivation to reduce subjective uncertainty takes precedence over the motivation to obtain a positive social identity in driving group identification. The paper tests the hypothesis that, among the most uncertain workers, identity leadership interacts negatively with procedural justice in their association with group identification. By means of three correlational studies carried out in real organizational contexts, the paper examines different types of experienced uncertainty: the uncertainty stemming from a merger (Study 1, N = 152); the broader uncertainty due to market instability and fast technological changes (Study 2, N = 382); the uncertainty related to the frequency of computer‐mediated communication (Study 3, N = 209). Results consistently show that, among the participants who feel the highest uncertainty in their working conditions and the participants who interact using computer‐mediated communication at the highest frequency, the association between group identification and procedural justice becomes weaker as identity leadership increases. Those results highlight the risk that in uncertain contexts, group members keep identifying with their group even in the face of procedural injustice if they perceive their leader as an identity leader. Thus the paper illuminates a condition where identity leadership may lead group members to tolerate and even support toxic environments.
Electronic performance monitoring (EPM), or the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to employee job performance, is a now ubiquitous work practice. We conducted a comprehensive meta‐analysis of the effects of EPM on workers (K = 94 independent samples, N = 23,461). Results provide no evidence that EPM improves worker performance. Moreover, findings indicate that the presence of EPM is associated with increased worker stress, regardless of the characteristics of monitoring. Findings also demonstrate that organizations that monitor more transparently and less invasively can expect more positive attitudes from workers. Overall, results highlight that even as advances in technology make possible a variety of ways to monitor workers, organizations must continue to consider the psychological component of work. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Tracking and tracing of objects have found widespread application in industry and logistics for the last decade. Profound information about the position and the status of an object allows better planning and scheduling, thus leads to more flexible processes, stock reductions and even new business models become possible. The implementation of tracking and tracing systems (TATS) precisely enables also electronic monitoring of employee performance and behavior. Therefore, this study analyzes perceptions of TATS in working environments and differentiates between the tracking of objects (AT) and the tracking of employees (EM). Our findings based on 19 qualitative interviews reveals that privacy issues predominantly emerge in the context of EM, but not so much with regard to AT. In the context of EM, we identify an imonitoring-privacy dilemma which can be solved when taking in account the acceptance factors (i.e., transparency, trust, communication, data storage, health aspect, and safety perception). Furthermore, experience seems to attenuate the perceived risks when implementing TATS.
Cambridge Core - Organisation Studies - The Cambridge Handbook of Technology and Employee Behavior - edited by Richard N. Landers
The Cambridge Handbook of Technology and Employee Behavior - edited by Richard N. Landers February 2019
Örgütsel adalet kazanımların, prosedürlerin ve yöneticiler tarafından çalışanlara gösterilen kişilerarası davranış ve iletişimin adil olarak algılanmasını ifade etmektedir. Örgütsel bağlılık, çalışanların örgütün hedef ve değerlerini benimsemesi, örgüt yararına fazla olarak çaba harcaması ve örgütte kalma arzusudur. Bu çalışmanın amacı örgütsel adaletin örgütsel bağlılık ile ilişkisinin olup olmadığını analiz etmektir. Ayrıca, dağıtım adaleti, prosedür adaleti ve etkileşim adaleti ile duygusal bağlılık, normatif bağlılık ve devam bağlılığı arasındaki ilişkiler korelasyon ve regresyon analizleriyle test edilmiştir. Analiz sonuçları ile dağıtım adaleti, prosedür adaleti ve etkileşim adaletinin duygusal bağlılığı ve normatif bağlılığı anlamlı ve pozitif yönde etkilediği; fakat dağıtım adaleti, prosedür adaleti ve etkileşim adaletinin devam bağlılığını anlamlı ve negatif yönde etkilediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Ayrıca çalışmada örgütsel adalet ve örgütsel bağlılık boyutlarının demografik özelliklere göre farklılık gösterip göstermediği t testi ve Anova ile test edilmiştir. Bu kapsamda örgütsel adalet boyutları medeni duruma, eğitim durumuna, unvana ve çalışma süresine göre farklılık göstermektedir. Örgütsel bağlılık boyutları medeni duruma, yaşa, eğitim durumuna, unvana ve çalışma süresine göre farklılık göstermektedir.
This paper describes the development of an instrument to measure the perception of privacy breaches. Perceived Privacy Breaches are divided into three dimensions: Dispersion, Fairness and Impact. These dimensions were derived using exploratory factor analysis on data gathered from 197 subjects. The instrument was utilized as part of a model to test the focal construct's relationships with its antecedents. A multiple regression was performed on a sample constituting 70% randomly selected cases. A cross-validation of the regression equation was performed using the remaining cases. Results indicate that the level of privacy concern an individual possesses has a positive impact on the severity of perceived privacy breaches. It was also found that personal experience of privacy invasions had a negative impact on the severity of perceived privacy breaches. © (2012) by the AIS/ICIS Administrative Office All rights reserved.
This chapter focuses on the continuous process of performance management rather than the discrete event of performance appraisal. The chapter begins by defining job performance and then reviews research concerning each of the core elements of performance management, including goal setting, feedback, developing employees (including coaching), evaluating performance, and rewarding performance. Several topics are reviewed that are of special interest to performance management: contextual performance, counterproductive work behavior, team performance, the role of technology, cross-cultural issues, and perceptions of fairness. The chapter concludes by presenting directions for future research.
Despite increasing policy emphasis on developing and retaining an aging workforce, this paper demonstrates employer use of electronic performance monitoring (EPM) as part of performance management which can adversely affect older workers. We focus specifically on the use of EPM which is used to identify a proportion of the workforce as ‘underperformers,’ often referred to as forced distribution rating systems. Evidence is presented from union informants representing employees in two technologically-intensive service sectors: the financial sector and telecommunications. These sectors were among the first to utilize technology in a way which had transformative implications for work processes and people management in white-collar service work. In both sectors and across clerical and engineering work contexts, the data show the use of EPM by managers to guide punitive performance management for sickness absence and perceived reduced capability. Older workers emerge as a vulnerable group, with manager decisions shown to be based on age stereotypes. We argue that increasingly pervasive use of digitized performance monitoring may intensify age discrimination in performance management.
Psychological reactions to privacy invasions are important to information sharing in online dyadic exchange. Although previous studies have enriched understanding on cognitive reaction to privacy invasions, rarely have researchers examined the emotional component. This study aims to fill the gap in the literature by examining the effects of cognitive and emotional reactions on information sharing. To develop the research model, we drew on the relational dialectic perspective and social exchange theories to explain the effects of dialectic tensions on information sharing through privacy threats and negative affect. The research model was tested on survey data gathered from 89 actual chat room users. We found that anonymity status, interaction intrusiveness, and disclosure by counterparts affect privacy threats. Interaction intrusiveness and disclosure by counterparts influence negative affect. Additionally, privacy threats and negative affect were found to be important in shaping information sharing.
While the structure of telecommuting, or telework, varies across companies, most arrangements offer employees the option to perform their work responsibilities from various locations. A number of factors provide a compelling case for employers to consider such arrangements for their employees, such as motivating better performance and fostering commitment to the organization. Using data that were collected during the longitudinal experiment reported in Hunton 2005, the present study seeks to better understand how organizations might achieve these goals by examining the impact of alternative telework arrangements on the organizational commitment of employees and by evaluating the relationships among telework arrangements, organizational commitment, and task performance. Participants in three of the telework conditions exhibited significant increases in affective, continuance, and normative commitment, relative to a control group; however, in one of the telework conditions (working exclusively at home), organizational commitment was equivalent to the control group. While we postulated that participants with higher numbers of work location alternatives would exhibit greater increases across all three dimensions of organizational commitment, this expectation was only marginally supported. Finally, we report a positive association between organizational commitment and task performance across the treatment conditions and find that organizational commitment mediates the relationship between the telework arrangements and task performance.
Although a flurry of meta-analyses summarized the justice literature at the turn of the millennium, interest in the topic has surged in the decade since. In particular, the past decade has witnessed the rise of social exchange theory as the dominant lens for examining reactions to justice, and the emergence of affect as a complementary lens for understanding such reactions. The purpose of this meta-analytic review was to test direct, mediating, and moderating hypotheses that were inspired by those 2 perspectives, to gauge their adequacy as theoretical guides for justice research. Drawing on a review of 493 independent samples, our findings revealed a number of insights that were not included in prior meta-analyses. With respect to social exchange theory, our results revealed that the significant relationships between justice and both task performance and citizenship behavior were mediated by indicators of social exchange quality (trust, organizational commitment, perceived organizational support, and leader-member exchange), though such mediation was not apparent for counterproductive behavior. The strength of those relationships did not vary according to whether the focus of the justice matched the target of the performance behavior, contrary to popular assumptions in the literature, or according to whether justice was referenced to a specific event or a more general entity. With respect to affect, our results showed that justice-performance relationships were mediated by positive and negative affect, with the relevant affect dimension varying across justice and performance variables. Our discussion of these findings focuses on the merit in integrating the social exchange and affect lenses in future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
The primary goal of this study was to develop and test a social exchange model of employee reactions to electronic performance monitoring (EPM) to help managers use EPM more effectively. This study proposed that certain EPM practices are related to perceptions of interpersonal and informational justice, which in turn build trust in the manager, along with other important attitudes and outcomes. In a sample of 257 call center representatives, the purpose for using EPM, development versus control, was associated with interpersonal justice perceptions, but EPM-based feedback characteristics, whether the feedback was timely, specific, and constructive, were not. Furthermore, the presence of an explanation for EPM was positively related to perceptions of informational justice. Moreover, interpersonal and informational justice perceptions were positively related to trust in the manager, which in turn was positively related to job performance and job satisfaction.
The nature of organizational life requires questioning the role of worker autonomy. An impressive amount of management research
has been devoted to autonomy issues in organizations. Autonomy is at the forefront of research on job design and the management
of employees. Therefore, we review evidence in the area of job design and management practices that deeply affect worker autonomy.
Throughout this discussion, we evaluate the cross-cultural applicability of research and practice and offer future directions
based on self-determination theory.
This study explores the dimensionality of organizational justice and provides evidence of construct validity for a new justice measure. Items for this measure were generated by strictly following the seminal works in the justice literature. The measure was then validated in 2 separate studies. Study 1 occurred in a university setting, and Study 2 occurred in a field setting using employees in an automobile parts manufacturing company. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 4-factor structure to the measure, with distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice as distinct dimensions. This solution fit the data significantly better than a 2- or 3-factor solution using larger interactional or procedural dimensions. Structural equation modeling also demonstrated predictive validity for the justice dimensions on important outcomes, including leader evaluation, rule compliance, commitment, and helping behavior.
The field of organizational justice continues to be marked by several important research questions, including the size of relationships among justice dimensions, the relative importance of different justice criteria, and the unique effects of justice dimensions on key outcomes. To address such questions, the authors conducted a meta-analytic review of 183 justice studies. The results suggest that although different justice dimensions are moderately to highly related, they contribute incremental variance explained in fairness perceptions. The results also illustrate the overall and unique relationships among distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice and several organizational outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, evaluation of authority, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal, performance). These findings are reviewed in terms of their implications for future research on organizational justice.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite a significant growth and mounting popular interest in electronic monitoring and surveillance of workers, there has not been a great deal of systematic research into the relationship among various monitoring techniques, employee reactions to such monitoring, and outcomes such as employee satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance and job stress. By applying the concept of procedural justice, this paper develops propositions to guide research on electronic control systems.
An estimated 26 million workers are electronically monitored by organizations. Contradictory evidence indicates that such monitoring may lead to either positive or negative outcomes for both organizations and their members. This article applies theories of organizational justice and concertive control to account for these contradictions. It is argued that, when organizations involve employees in the design and implementation of monitoring systems, restrict monitoring to performance-related activities, and use data obtained through electronic means in a concertive manner by emphasizing two-way communication and supportive feedback, they are likely to reap positive results. However, when employees are not involved in the introduction of monitoring, when data gathered through electronic performance monitoring are used to provide coercive, obtrusive feedback, or when monitoring includes nonwork activities, the organization may experience negative results.
This field study considered proposed relationships between perceived procedural fairness and employee reactions to a relatively novel organizational phenomenon, electronic control systems (ECSs). In a sample (N= 151) of employees, perceptions of ECSs' procedural fairness explained variance in ECSs' satisfaction beyond that accounted for in previous studies. In turn, ECSs' satisfaction was associated with job satisfaction. Results generally show that procedural fairness, which has a history of strong relationships with important organization outcomes, enhances existing models of employee reactions to ECSs.
In this study of employees in five multinational corporations, assessment was made of (a) employees' beliefs regarding the types of personal information stored their companies, (b) the accuracy of those perceptions, (c) reactions to various internal and external uses of this personal information, and (d) evaluations of the companies' information handling policies and practices.
In a laboratory study, 192 undergraduate students performed a task for which they received either high, medium, or low monetary outcomes as a result of a fair or unfair procedure. Subjects reported that medium and high outcomes were fair regardless of the procedure used, but that low outcomes were only fair when they were based on a fair procedure. The outcomes received, however, had no impact on ratings of the fairness of the procedures used. These results corroborated earlier findings from the dispute-resolution literature, but extend them to reward-distribution contexts in which different manipulations of procedural justice were used. The limitations of equity theory in accounting for improprieties in organizational procedures are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the effect of 4 independent variables—type of information disclosed (personality or performance), permission granted or not granted by the employee for the disclosure, unfavorable or favorable consequences of the disclosure, and internal vs external recipients of the information—on perceived invasion of privacy. 2,047 employees in 5 corporations rated 1 of 16 hypothetical situations describing an employee who had applied for a new job that was a promotion. Ss perceived a greater invasion of privacy with personality than with performance information, with no permission for disclosure than with permission, with unfavorable consequences, and with external disclosure than with internal disclosure. Eta-squared values showed that permission was the most important main effect, followed by location of disclosure, consequences, and type of information. (13 ref)) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The goal of the present study was to extend research on information privacy and fairness by examining these constructs within the context of human resource information systems. Using a 2 × 2 experimental design and data from 124 employed subjects in an organization that was in the process of developing a human resource information system, the present study examined the main and interactive effects of policies concerning ability to authorize disclosure (ability to authorize vs. no ability to authorize) and target of disclosure (internal to the organization vs. external to the organization) on invasion of privacy perceptions and fairness perceptions. Results of multivariate and univariate analyses of variance indicated that the independent variables had main and interactive effects on both fairness perceptions and invasion of privacy perceptions. Moreover, a confirmatory factor analysis suggested that invasion of privacy perceptions and fairness perceptions are distinct constructs. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.
Considerable controversy has surrounded the use of computerized performance monitoring (CPM) by employers. Critics of this technology contend that CPM usage raises serious ethical concerns. Beliefs that the use of computerized performance monitors results in unfair performance evaluation, stress and health problems underlie much of the current concern over this technology. A field study was undertaken to provide empirical evidence that could be used to guide the design and use of computerized performance monitors to minimize these problems. One hundred forty three members of the Communication Workers of America participated in a cross sectional field study. The study examined the relationship between various monitoring system characteristics and employees'' health problems, stress and satisfaction with the performance evaluation process. The ethical implications of the results are discussed.
The field of organizational justice continues to be marked by several important research questions, including the size of relationships among justice dimensions, the relative importance of different justice criteria, and the unique effects of justice dimensions on key outcomes. To address such questions, the authors conducted a meta-analytic review of 183 justice studies. The results suggest that although different justice dimensions are moderately to highly related, they contribute incremental variance explained in fairness perceptions. The results also illustrate the overall and unique relationships among distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice and several organizational outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, evaluation of authority, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal, performance). These findings are reviewed in terms of their implications for future research on organizational justice.
Electronic workplace surveillance is raising concerns about privacy and fairness. Integrating research on electronic performance monitoring, procedural justice, and organizational privacy, the author proposes a framework for understanding reactions to technologies used to monitor and control employees. To test the framework's plausibility. temporary workers performed computer/Web-based tasks under varying levels of computer surveillance. Results indicated that monitoring job-relevant activities (relevance) and affording those who were monitored input into the process (participation) reduced invasion of privacy and enhanced procedural justice. Moreover, invasion of privacy fully mediated the effect of relevance and partially mediated the effect of participation on procedural justice. The findings are encouraging for integrating theory and research on procedural justice and organizational privacy.
Using a 3 X 2 experimental design, this study examined main and interactive effects of the method used to select applicants for drug testing and the timing of the test on attitudes toward drug testing and job acceptance intentions. Results showed significant two-way interactions for both attitudes toward drug testing and job acceptance intentions.
An approach to electronic performance monitoring is developed that examines job design and worker stress theories and consequently defines the critical job elements of stress response in an electronic monitoring context. A framework for the evaluation of electronic performance monitoring systems is presented. A conceptual model is proposed that states that electronic performance monitoring has direct and indirect effects on worker stress. The indirect effects result from job design. The potential effects of electronic performance monitoring on three job design characteristics (job demands, job control, and social support) are examined in more detail.
The distribution of rewards and resources is a universal phenomenon that occurs in social systems of all sizes, from small groups to whole societies (Parsons, 1951; Parsons, Shils, & Olds, 1951). All groups, organizations, and societies deal with the question of allocating rewards, punishments, and resources. The manner in which a social system deals with these issues has great impact on its effectiveness and on the satisfaction of its members. For these reasons, it is not surprising that social scientists from many disciplines—political scientists, economists, sociologists, and psychologists—have been concerned with the problem of allocation (e.g., Jones & Kaufman, 1974; Leventhal, 1976a; Pondy, 1970).
The present article chronicles the history of the field of organizational justice, identifies current themes, and recommends new directions for the future. A historical overview of the field focuses on research and theory in the distributive justice tradition (e.g., equity theory) as well as the burgeoning topic of procedural justice. This forms the foundation for the discussion offive popular themes in contemporary organizational justice research: (a) attempts to distinguish procedural justice and distributive justice empirically, (b) the development of new conceptual advances, (c) consideration of the interpersonal determinants of procedural justice judgments, (d) new directions in tests of equity theory, and (e) applications of justice-based explanations to many different organizational phenomena. In closing, a plea is made for future work that improves procedural justice research methodologically (with respect to scope, setting, and scaling), and that attempts to integrate and unify disparate concepts in the distributive and procedural justice traditions.
This paper presents an alternative to the predominant equity theory for studying the concept of fairness in social relationships. According to the equity theory, or merit principle, fairness in social relationships occurs when rewards, punishments, and resources are allocated in proportion to one's input or contributions. The basic problems of this theory are that it employs a unidimensional concept of fairness and that it emphasizes only the fairness of distribution, ignoring the fairness of procedure. In contrast, the alternative to this theory is based on two justice rules, the distributional and the procedural. Distribution rules follow certain criteria: the individual's contributions, his needs, and the equality theory. These criteria are considered relative to the individual's role within the particular setting or social system. A justice judgment sequence estimates the individual's deservingness based on each rule. Final judgments evolve from a rule-combination equation. Preceding the final distribution of reward, a cognitive map of the allocative process is constructed. Fairness is judged in terms of the procedure's consistency, prevention of personal bias, and its representativeness of important subgroups. Opportunities to apply this concept of fairness exist in field studies of censorship, participatory decision making, equal opportunity, and representativeness of social institutions. (KC)
A study was conducted with 225 college students to examine the effects of three organizational and policy variables on the perceived fairness and invasiveness of drug-testing practices. Specifically, the effects of warning type (no warning vs. advance warning), consequence of a positive drug test (termination vs. rehabilitation), and safety sensitivity of the job (safety sensitive vs. safety nonsensitive) were examined. Results suggested that specific features of the policy, as well as type of job under consideration, affected perceived invasiveness and fairness of drug testing. In general, testing was seen as more appropriate for safety-sensitive jobs, that is, those in which drug-impaired performance presented a high degree of danger for individuals. Although rehabilitation was perceived as more fair than termination, when safety was an issue, termination was viewed as a justifiable response by the company. Implications for organizational drug-testing policies are discussed.
Readers who want a less mathematical alternative to the EQS manual will find exactly what they're looking for in this practical text. Written specifically for those with little to no knowledge of structural equation modeling (SEM) or EQS, the author's goal is to provide a non-mathematical introduction to the basic concepts of SEM by applying these principles to EQS, Version 6.1. The book clearly demonstrates a wide variety of SEM/EQS applications that include confirmatory factor analytic and full latent variable models.
The effects of automated computer monitoring under different conditions of performance standards and reward were examined in two studies conducted in a simulated organization. In the first study, 37 computer operators were divided into six groups who worked for a 2-week period under different levels of performance standards. Individual keystrokes per hour and productive time was monitored by the computers for all of the groups (one group was a control group which was monitored but was unaware of the monitoring). Four of the six groups were assigned work standards, and performance against standards was also monitored for these four groups. Feedback reports on the monitored performance were available on demand at the individual consoles for those groups which were informed of the monitoring. The results showed that computer monitoring and feedback led to increased key rate compared to the control group which was not aware of monitoring. There was little effect of monitoring on work quality, satisfaction, and stress. In the second study, 24 operators worked for a 9-week period under various performance standards and rewards. Individual keystrokes per hour, productive time, and performance against standards were monitored by the computers for all workers. Feedback reports on performance against standards and rewards earned were available on demand at the individual consoles. The results revealed that the feedback from different combinations of standards and rewards had varying effects on performance, satisfaction, and stress. These effects, and the results from the first study, are discussed in terms of goal setting and expectancy theory.
Despite claims that computerized performance monitoring (CPM) systems provide objective performance data and thus foster accurate employee evaluations, few research studies have examined the impact of CPM data on the performance appraisal process. A laboratory experiment was conducted to assess the impact of prior performance level on requests for computerized performance information, and the influence of both prior performance level and requested information on performance evaluation. Forty-four male and female undergraduates electronically monitored four simulated employees whose prior performance was either high or low and whose performance during the monitoring period was either high or low. Results indicated that prior performance level and employee performance during the monitoring period independently influenced both current and future performance ratings. Further, when the simulated employee performed at a level incongruent with her prior performance, subjects requested more data about the employee's performance, were less certain about their ratings of the employee's current and future performance, and rated the employee's current performance as more variable than when the employee performed at a level congruent with prior performance. These results indicate that use of CPM systems that allow on-line access to employee performance and that record requested information may increase performance evaluation accuracy by facilitating the implementation of search strategies best suited to specific appraisal tasks and minimizing memory-related biases. However, such systems may not eliminate the effects of attention/encoding biases.
This paper advances the argument that individual privacy is a procedural justice issue in organizations. A review of the organizational privacy literature supports this argument, and new directions for procedural justice research are suggested. In addition, it is argued that a focus on individual privacy highlights the political and paradoxical implications of procedural justice issues in organizations.
Performance monitoring was reviewed from an organizational justice perspective. Several predictors of perceived fairness were derived from this review and tested using employed respondents from eight different organizational settings (N = 301). Analyses confirmed that the predictors accounted for significant variance in perceived fairness in both electronically monitored and traditionally monitored work environments. These predictors were labeled monitoring consistency, knowledge of performance from monitoring, monitoring control, and justifications for monitoring.
Jerald Greenberg is Abramowitz Professor of Business Ethics at The Ohio State University. His most recent publication is the seventh edition of Behavior in Organizations. Russell Cropanzano is Associate Professor and Industrial/Organizational Section Coordinator in the Department of Psychology at Colorado State University. ---------- This is a state-of-the-science book about organizational justice, which is the study of peopleââ¬â¢s perception of fairness in organizations. The volumeââ¬â¢s contributors, all acknowledged leaders in this burgeoning field, present new theoretical positions, clarify existing paradigms, and identify future areas of application. The first chapter provides a comprehensive framework that integrates and synthesizes key concepts in the field: distributive justice, procedural justice, and retributive justice. The second chapter is a full theoretical analysis of how people use fairness judgments as means of guiding their reactions to organizations and their authorities. The subsequent two chapters examine the conceptual interrelationships between various forms of organizational justice. First, we are given a definitive review and analysis of interactional justice that critically assesses the evidence bearing on its validity. The next chapter argues that previous research has underemphasized important similarities between distributive and procedural justice, and suggests new research directions for establishing these similarities. The three following chapters focus on the social and interpersonal antecedents of justice judgments: the influence that expectations of justice and injustice can have on work-related attitudes and behavior; the construction of a model of the determinants and consequences of normative beliefs about justice in organizations that emphasizes the role of cross-cultural norms; and the potential impact of diversity and multiculturalism on the viability of organizations. The bookââ¬â¢s final chapter identifies seven canons of organizational justice and warns that in the absence of additional conceptual refinement these canons may operate as loose cannons that threaten the existence of justice as a viable construct in the organizational sciences. ---------- ââ¬ÅThis book brings together the worldââ¬â¢s leading scholars in the field of justice and fairness. Rather than just summarizing existing research, this sparkling collection also offers the latest thinking about new and productive directions for future research. It is a ââ¬Ëmust haveââ¬â¢ for any scholar or student working on the problems of justice.ââ¬?ââ¬âRoderick M. Kramer, Stanford University
This study explores the dimensionality of organizational justice and provides evidence of construct validity for a new justice measure. Items for this measure were generated by strictly following the seminal works in the justice literature. The measure was then validated in 2 separate studies. Study 1 occurred in a university setting, and Study 2 occurred in a field setting using employees in an automobile parts manufacturing company. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 4-factor structure to the measure, with distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice as distinct dimensions. This solution fit the data significantly better than a 2- or 3-factor solution using larger interactional or procedural dimensions. Structural equation modeling also demonstrated predictive validity for the justice dimensions on important outcomes, including leader evaluation, rule compliance, commitment, and helping behavior.
Current applications of electronic performance monitoring based on job design theories that consider worker performance rather than stress issues are likely to generate unsatisfying and stressful jobs (Smith et al, 1986). This study examines critical job design elements that could influence worker stress responses in an electronic monitoring context. A questionnaire survey of employees in telecommunications companies representative of each region in the United States examined job stress in directory assistance, service representative and clerical jobs with specific emphasis on the influence of electronic monitoring of job performance, satisfaction and employee health. Useable surveys were received from 745 employees representing seven operating companies and AT & T; a response rate of about 25%. The results of this survey indicated that employees who had their performance electronically monitored perceived their working conditions as more stressful, and reported higher levels of job boredom, psychological tension, anxiety, depression, anger, health complaints and fatigue. It is postulated that these effects may be related to changes in job design due to electronic performance monitoring.
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