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In his instructions to Lewis, Jefferson emphasized the necessity for treating all Indian tribes in the most conciliatory manner. ''"Treat them in the most friendly and conciliatory manner"'', he admonished, and learn all you can about them.<ref>Harry W. Fritz (2004). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFHn18Z7ywC&pg=PA13&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Lewis and Clark Expedition]''". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.13. ISBN 0313316619</ref> There were very few hostile encounters, and relations with most tribes were as friendly as Jefferson had hoped they would be.<ref>Elin Woodger, Brandon Toropov (2004). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8vYA0zDFy_IC&pg=PA174&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition]''". Infobase Publishing. p.174. ISBN 0816047812</ref>
In his instructions to Lewis, Jefferson emphasized the necessity for treating all Indian tribes in the most conciliatory manner. ''"Treat them in the most friendly and conciliatory manner"'', he admonished, and learn all you can about them.<ref>Harry W. Fritz (2004). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFHn18Z7ywC&pg=PA13&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Lewis and Clark Expedition]''". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.13. ISBN 0313316619</ref> There were very few hostile encounters, and relations with most tribes were as friendly as Jefferson had hoped they would be.<ref>Elin Woodger, Brandon Toropov (2004). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8vYA0zDFy_IC&pg=PA174&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition]''". Infobase Publishing. p.174. ISBN 0816047812</ref>


Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with two dozen indigenous nations. Without their help, the expedition would have starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains.<ref name="fritz2004"/> The Americans and the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] nation (whom the Americans called Sioux or "Teton-wan Sioux") had problems when they met. All earlier travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive tribe. A recent Sioux assault had killed 75 [[Omaha people|Omaha]] Indians and destroyed 40 lodges.<ref>Harry W. Fritz (2004). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFHn18Z7ywC&pg=PA14&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Lewis and Clark Expedition]''". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.14. ISBN 0313316619</ref> One of their horses disapeared, and they believed the Sioux were responsible. Afterward, the two sides met and there was a disagreement, and the Sioux asked the men the stay or to give more gifts instead before being allowed to pass through their territory. They came close to fighting several times, and both sides finally backed down and the expedition continued on to Arikara territory. Clark wrote they were "warlike" and were the "vilest miscreants of the savage race."<ref>''Lewis and Clark among the Tetons: Smoking out What Really Happened'', Craig Howe, Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 69.</ref><ref>T''he Lewis and Clark Expedition'', Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 14-5.</ref><ref>''Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West'', Simon and Schuster, 1996, pg 170.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cz4ts0fCDssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lewis+and+Clark+among+the+Indians++By+James+P.+Ronda&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=Bg8WTZSAM8XzcYWbhekK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false |title='&#39;Lewis & Clark among the Indians'&#39;. University of Nebraska Press, 1984, pg 27, 40 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-20}}</ref><ref>''The Way to the Western Sea'', David Lavender, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pg 181.</ref>
Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with two dozen indigenous nations. Without their help, the expedition would have starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains.<ref name="fritz2004"/> The Americans and the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] nation (whom the Americans called [[Sioux]] or "Teton-wan Sioux") had problems when they met. The fear of attack by hostile Lakota was a constant source of apprehension. During the recent raid the Sioux had killed 75 [[Omaha people|Omaha]] Indians.<ref>Harry W. Fritz (2004). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GFFHn18Z7ywC&pg=PA14&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Lewis and Clark Expedition]''". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.14. ISBN 0313316619</ref> One of their horses disapeared, and they believed the Sioux were responsible. Afterward, the two sides met and there was a disagreement, and the Sioux asked the men the stay or to give more gifts instead before being allowed to pass through their territory. They came close to fighting several times, and both sides finally backed down and the expedition continued on to Arikara territory. Clark wrote they were "warlike" and were the "vilest miscreants of the savage race."<ref>''Lewis and Clark among the Tetons: Smoking out What Really Happened'', Craig Howe, Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 69.</ref><ref>T''he Lewis and Clark Expedition'', Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 14-5.</ref><ref>''Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West'', Simon and Schuster, 1996, pg 170.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cz4ts0fCDssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lewis+and+Clark+among+the+Indians++By+James+P.+Ronda&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=Bg8WTZSAM8XzcYWbhekK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false |title='&#39;Lewis & Clark among the Indians'&#39;. University of Nebraska Press, 1984, pg 27, 40 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-20}}</ref><ref>''The Way to the Western Sea'', David Lavender, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pg 181.</ref>


[[Image:001 Fort Mandan Interior.jpg‎|thumb|left|200px|Reconstruction of Fort Mandan, Lewis & Clark Memorial Park, North Dakota]]In the winter of 1804–05, the party built [[Fort Mandan]], near present-day [[Washburn, North Dakota]].
[[Image:001 Fort Mandan Interior.jpg‎|thumb|left|200px|Reconstruction of Fort Mandan, Lewis & Clark Memorial Park, North Dakota]]In the winter of 1804–05, the party built [[Fort Mandan]], near present-day [[Washburn, North Dakota]].

Revision as of 06:19, 8 February 2011

This article is about the early 19th century expedition. For Lewis and Clark, see Lewis and Clark (disambiguation).

Route of the expedition

Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led the first United States expedition (1804–1806) to the Pacific Coast. Though Jefferson stated in one letter the goal was to find a "direct & practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce" (the Northwest Passage),[1] the expedition actually had several goals. In order to make a firm claim of “discovery” to the Pacific Northwest and compete with the British for control of land and the fur trade, Jefferson had the men follow the rivers, map them, and collect scientific data. Jefferson also placed special importance on declaring U.S. sovereignty over the tribes along the Missouri River and getting an accurate sense of the resources in the Louisiana Purchase.[2][3][4][5] Although the expedition did make notable achievements in science,[6] scientific research itself was not the main goal behind the mission.[7]

References to Lewis and Clark "scarcely appeared" in history books even during the United States centennial in 1876 and the expedition was largely forgotten despite having had a significant impact on increasing American owned land.[8][9]

Background

Some Europeans crossed North America before Lewis and Clark. In 1536, Cabeza de Vaca led the Narváez expedition to Culiacán, close to the Pacific Ocean.[10][11] In 1793, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, a Canadian made the trip by land to the Pacific Ocean; Jefferson read his book about the trip in 1802, and this influenced his decision to send an expedition.[12][13][14]

File:Lewis-Clark-Sacagawea-baby J-B Charbonneau.jpg
Front of the sculpture by Eugene L. Daub[15] showing Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, Sakakawea, and her baby Jean-Baptiste Charbonneau in Kansas City, Missouri.

Robert Gray, an American fur trader, went to the Columbia River in 1792, in what became an important basis for the United States claim to the Pacific Northwest.[16][17]

Spain, Russia, and Britain began sending fur trading ships to the Pacific Northwest coast, and were quite familiar with it by 1800. From the 1790s, American merchants controlled the coast trade between Spanish California and Russian Alaska.[18]

Jefferson had a long interest in western expansion, and in 1780s met John Ledyard who discussed a proposed trip to the Pacific Northwest.[19][20] When he became President, he asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana Purchase, and to head to the Pacific Ocean. He used a secret message to Congress to ask them to fund the trip.[21][22][23]

Preparation for the journey

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery, and named U.S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis its leader, who selected William Clark as his partner.[24] Their goals were to explore the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade and U.S. sovereignity over the native peoples along the River Missouri. Jefferson also wanted to establish a U.S. claim of "Discovery" to the Pacific Northwest and Oregon territory by documenting an American presence there before Europeans could claim the land.[25][26][27][4] According to some historians, Jefferson understood he would have a better claim of ownership to the Pacific Northwest if the team gathered scientific data on animals and plants.[28][29]

The U.S. mint prepared special silver medals with a portrait of Jefferson and had a message of friendship and peace, called Indian Peace Medals or peace medals. The soldiers were to distribute them to the nations they met. These symbolized U.S. sovereignty or over the indigenous inhabitants. The expedition also prepared advanced weapons to display their military firepower. They also carried flags, gift bundles, medicine and other items they would need for their journey. Much time went into ensuring a sufficient supply of these items.[30][31][32][33]

Journey

See also: Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition

There were 33 people, including 29 participants in training at the 1803–1804 Camp Dubois winter staging area in Illinois Territory, near present day Hartford, Illinois. They left on May 14, 1804, and met up with Lewis in Saint Charles, Missouri, a short time later; the corps followed the Missouri River westward. Soon they passed La Charrette, the last Euro-American settlement on the Missouri River. The expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He was buried at Floyd's Bluff, in what is now Sioux City, Iowa. During the final week of August, Lewis and Clark reached the edge of the Great Plains, a place abounding with elk, deer, bison, and beavers.

In his instructions to Lewis, Jefferson emphasized the necessity for treating all Indian tribes in the most conciliatory manner. "Treat them in the most friendly and conciliatory manner", he admonished, and learn all you can about them.[34] There were very few hostile encounters, and relations with most tribes were as friendly as Jefferson had hoped they would be.[35]

Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with two dozen indigenous nations. Without their help, the expedition would have starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains.[36] The Americans and the Lakota nation (whom the Americans called Sioux or "Teton-wan Sioux") had problems when they met. The fear of attack by hostile Lakota was a constant source of apprehension. During the recent raid the Sioux had killed 75 Omaha Indians.[37] One of their horses disapeared, and they believed the Sioux were responsible. Afterward, the two sides met and there was a disagreement, and the Sioux asked the men the stay or to give more gifts instead before being allowed to pass through their territory. They came close to fighting several times, and both sides finally backed down and the expedition continued on to Arikara territory. Clark wrote they were "warlike" and were the "vilest miscreants of the savage race."[38][39][40][41][42]

Reconstruction of Fort Mandan, Lewis & Clark Memorial Park, North Dakota

In the winter of 1804–05, the party built Fort Mandan, near present-day Washburn, North Dakota.

One chief asked Lewis and Clark provide a boat for passage through their national territory. As tensions increased, Lewis and Clark prepared to fight, but the two sides fell back in the end. The Americans quickly continued westward (upriver), and camped for the winter in the Mandan nation's territory. Here they met a French-Canadian fur trapper named Toussaint Charbonneau, and young Shoshone wife, Sakakawea, or Sacajawea helped translate.

They followed the Missouri to its headwaters, and over the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass. In canoes, they descended the mountains by the Clearwater River, the Snake River, and the Columbia River, past Celilo Falls and past what is now Portland, Oregon at the meeting of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers. Lewis used William Robert Broughton's 1792 notes and maps to find the stratovolcano mountain for navigation.

The expedition faced its second bitter winter, and vote on whether to camp on the south side of the Columbia river (modern Astoria, Oregon), building Fort Clatsop. The Corps turned home on March 23, 1806, using by canoes, and later by land.[43] On July 3, after crossing the Continental Divide, the Corps split into two teams so Lewis could explore the Marias River. Lewis' group of four met some men from the Blackfeet nation. During the night, the Blackfeet tried to steal their weapons. In the struggle, the soldiers killed two Blackfeet men. Lewis, Drouillard, and the Field brothers, fled over 100 miles (160 km) in a day before they camped again. Clark, meanwhile, had entered the Crow tribe's territory. In the night, half of Clark's horses were gone, but not a single Crow had been seen. Lewis and Clark stayed separated until they reached the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers on August 11, along with Clark's. While reuniting, one of Clark's hunters, Pierre Cruzatte, mistook Lewis for an elk and fired, injuring Lewis in the thigh. Once reunited, the Corps was able to return home quickly via the Missouri River. They reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806.

The Corps met their objective of reaching the Pacific, mapping and establishing their presence for a legal claim to the land. They established diplomatic relations and trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations. They did not find the Northwest Passage.[36]

Geography, mapping, scientific data

Further information: [[:List of species described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition]]
The famous map of Lewis and Clark's expedition. It changed mapping of northwest America by providing the first accurate depiction of the relationship of the sources of the Columbia and Missouri rivers, and the Rocky Mountains.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition gained an understanding of the geography of the Northwest and produced the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark drew about 140 maps. Stephen Ambrose says the expedition "filled in the main outlines" of the area.[44] The expedition documented natural resources and plants that had been previously unknown to Euro-Americans, though not to the indigenous peoples.[45] Lewis and Clark "were the first" Americans to describe "the place officially".[46] Their visit to the Pacific Northwest, maps, and proclamations of sovereignty with medals and flags were legal steps needed to claim title to indigenous nation's lands under the Doctrine of Discovery.[47]

Lewis and Clark's expedition had no greater advocate, and no greater beneficiary, than the American Philosophical Society (APS).[48] Their duties, as assigned by Jefferson, were preeminently scientific. Specifically, they were instructed in geography, astronomy, ethnology, climatology, mineralogy, meteorology, botany, ornithology, and zoology.[49] The expedition recorded more than 200 plants and animals that were new to science and noted at least seventy-two different Indian tribes.[50]

Jefferson had the expedition declare "sovereignty" and demonstrate their military strength to ensure native tribes would be subordinate to the US, as European colonizers did elsewhere. This was "An extension of American power", not simply a scientific journey, though it added a significant amount of knowledge to scholars. Expansion by American settlers would begin over the next few years.[51][52][53][failed verification]

In 1807 Patrick Gass published an account of the journey.[54] Paul Allen edited a two-volume history of the Lewis and Clark expedition that was published in 1814, in Philadelphia, but without mention of the actual author, banker Nicholas Biddle.[55][56] Even then, all of the report wasn't completely made public until more recently.[57] The earliest authorized edition of the Lewis and Clark journals reside in the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library at the University of Montana.

Sakagawea

Main article: Sakajawea

Sakakawea, sometimes called Sakajawea or Sakagawea (c. 1788 – December 20, 1812), was an indigenous woman who accompanied her husband Toussaint Charbonneau on the expedition to the Pacific Ocean. Her son Jean Baptiste Charbonneau was born in 1805 with the help of the expedition.

Though she has been discussed in literature frequently, much of the information is exaggerated or fiction. Scholars say she did notice some geographical features, but "Sacagawea...was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways."[58] The sight of a woman and her infant son would have been a reassuring sight to some indigenous nations, and she played an important role in diplomatic relations by talking to chiefs, easing tensions, and giving the impression of a peaceful mission.[36][59]

In his writings, Meriwether Lewis presented a somewhat negative view of her, though Clark had a higher regard for her, and later on provided some support for her children in subsequent years. In the journals, they used the terms "squar" and "savages" to refer to Sakakawea and other indigenous peoples.[60]

See also

References

  1. ^ Elin Woodger, Brandon Toropov (2004). "Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition". Infobase Publishing. p.150. ISBN 0816047812
  2. ^ Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, James Fenelon, Mary Defender-Wilson. Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 90-1
  3. ^ Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and Manifest Destiny Robert Miller, Bison Books, 2008 pg 108
  4. ^ a b The Way to the Western Sea, David Lavender, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pg 32, 90.
  5. ^ Lewis and Clark among the Indians, James Ronda, University of Nebraska Press, 2002, pg 82, 192.
  6. ^ Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.3, 59. ISBN 0313316619
  7. ^ "Lewis and Clark among the Indians, James Ronda. pg 9". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  8. ^ Ronda, James P. (1998). Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Montana Historical Society. pp. 327–328. ISBN 9780917298455. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
  9. ^ Fresonke, Kris; Spencer, John (2004). Lewis & Clark: Legacies, Memories, and New Perspectives. University of California Press. pp. 159–162. ISBN 9780520228399. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
  10. ^ The Texas Panhandle frontier, Frederick Rathjen, Texas Tech University Press, 1998, pg 46.
  11. ^ A People & a Nation: A History of the United States : to 1877, Mary Norton, Carol Sheriff, Houghlin Mifflin, 2008, pg 390.
  12. ^ DeVoto, Bernard (1953). The Journals of Lewis and Clark. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. xxix. ISBN 0-395-08380-X.
  13. ^ "''Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia'', Volume 1, William J. Mills, 2003, pg 390". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  14. ^ "''The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history'', Carlos Schwantes, University of Nebraska Press, 1996, pg 54-5". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  15. ^ "The American Midwest: an interpretive encyclopedia, p. 1758". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  16. ^ Hail, Columbia! John Scofield, Oregon Historical Society Press, 1993.
  17. ^ Before Lewis and Clark, Lt. Broughton's River of Names: The Columbia River Exploration of 1792, Jim Mockford. Oregon Historical Quarterly, Vol. 106, No. 4 Winter, 2005, pp. 543
  18. ^ "''The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history'', Carlos Schwantes, University of Nebraska Press, 1996, pg 22". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  19. ^ Ambrose, Stephen. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the opening of the American west. (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996). p. 69.
  20. ^ Visions of Another Empire: John Ledyard, an American Traveler across the Russian Empire, 1787-1788, Edward Gray, Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 24, No. 3 Autumn, 2004, pp. 358.
  21. ^ "''The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia'', Junius Rodriguez, 2002, pg xxiv". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  22. ^ "''Acts of discovery: visions of America in the Lewis and Clark journals'', Albert Furtwangler, 1993, pg 19". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  23. ^ "Jefferson's Secret Message to Congress". Retrieved 2006-06-30.
  24. ^ "''The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history'', Carlos Schwantes, University of Nebraska Press, 1996, pg 55". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  25. ^ "''The encyclopedia of Louisville'' John Kleber, University Pess of Kentucky, 2000, pg 509, 510". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  26. ^ "''The Lewis and Clark Expedition'' Harry Fritz, pg 1, 5". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  27. ^ Lewis & Clark among the Indians. University of Nebraska Press, 1984, pg 32.
  28. ^ Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and Manifest Destiny Robert Miller, Bison Books, 2008 pg 99, 100, 111
  29. ^ "''The United States Army: issues, background and bibliography'', George Bennett, Nova Science Publishers, 2002, pg 4". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  30. ^ Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, James Fenelon, Mary Defender-Wilson. Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 88, 90
  31. ^ Explorations into the world of Lewis and Clark, Robert Saindon, 2003, pg 551-2.
  32. ^ Native America, discovered and conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, Praeger, 2008, pg 106.
  33. ^ Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Elin Woodger, Brandon Toropov. pg 265, 271, 104.
  34. ^ Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.13. ISBN 0313316619
  35. ^ Elin Woodger, Brandon Toropov (2004). "Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition". Infobase Publishing. p.174. ISBN 0816047812
  36. ^ a b c Fritz, Harry W. (2004). The Lewis and Clark Expedition. Greenwood Press.
  37. ^ Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.14. ISBN 0313316619
  38. ^ Lewis and Clark among the Tetons: Smoking out What Really Happened, Craig Howe, Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 69.
  39. ^ The Lewis and Clark Expedition, Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 14-5.
  40. ^ Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West, Simon and Schuster, 1996, pg 170.
  41. ^ "''Lewis & Clark among the Indians''. University of Nebraska Press, 1984, pg 27, 40". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  42. ^ The Way to the Western Sea, David Lavender, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pg 181.
  43. ^ Dugout Canoe description Retrieved on March 24, 2007
  44. ^ Ambrose, Stephen E. (1996). Undaunted Courage. Simon & Schuster.
  45. ^ The Lewis and Clark Expedition, Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 60
  46. ^ Archibald, Robert R. (2003). "The Significance of the National Lewis and Clark Commemoration". Indiana Magazine of History. 99: 254–262.
  47. ^ Bernard deVoto (1962), The Course of Empire (Boston:Houghton Mifflin); p. 552
  48. ^ Elin Woodger, Brandon Toropov (2004). "Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition". Infobase Publishing. p.29. ISBN 0816047812
  49. ^ Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.59. ISBN 0313316619
  50. ^ Jack Uldrich, Meriwether Lewis, William Clark (2004). "Into the unknown: leadership lessons from Lewis & Clark's daring westward adventure". AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. p.37. ISBN 0814408168
  51. ^ Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, James Fenelon, Mary Defender-Wilson. Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 87-8, 90-1
  52. ^ Lewis & Clark: legacies, memories, and new perspectives Kris Fresonke, Mark Spence pg 70
  53. ^ "''The Lewis and Clark Expedition'', Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 88". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
  54. ^ MacGregor, Carol Lynn (1997). The Journals of Patrick Gass. Mountain Press Publishing Co. ISBN 0-87842-350-8., originally published in 1807
  55. ^
  56. ^ Cutright, Paul Russell (July 1982). Contributions of Philadelphia to Lewis and Clark History. Portland, Oregon: Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, Inc. pp. 33–35. ISBN 0967888700. An anomaly of some proportion is the fact that the 1814 account, now commonly referred to as the Biddle edition, carried no mention of Biddle anywhere. ... The only logical explanation of this incredible omission is that Biddle wanted it that way, insisted on complete anonymity.
  57. ^ Lewis and Clark Journals
  58. ^ Clark, Ella Elizabeth. Sacagawea of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Berkeley, Calif: University of California P, 1979.
  59. ^ Ronda, James P. (2003). "Why Lewis and Clark Matter". Smithsonian. 34: 98–101.
  60. ^ "''Lewis and Clark among the Indians'', James Ronda, University of Nebraska Press, 2002, pg 258-9". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2011-01-20.

Further reading

External links

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