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The CCP grew rapidly in the [[Northern Expedition]] (1925–1927), a military unification campaign led by Sun Yat-sen's successor, [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. The Party, still led by urban intellectuals, developed a radical agenda of mass mobilization, labor organization, rural uprisings, [[anti-imperialism]], and national unification. As the Northern Expedition neared success, Chiang in December 1927 unleashed a [[White Terror (mainland China)|White Terror]] that virtually wiped out the CCP in the cities. [[Mao Zedong]], whose [[Autumn Harvest Uprising]] had been a spectacular failure in mobilizing local peasants, nevertheless became Party leader and established rural bases and creation of the [[Chinese Red Army]] to protect them. During the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945) Mao led a [[Yan'an Rectification Movement|rectification campaign]] to emphasize [[Maoism]] and his leadership and after the war he led the CCP to victory in the [[Chinese Civil War]] (1945–1949).
The CCP grew rapidly in the [[Northern Expedition]] (1925–1927), a military unification campaign led by Sun Yat-sen's successor, [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. The Party, still led by urban intellectuals, developed a radical agenda of mass mobilization, labor organization, rural uprisings, [[anti-imperialism]], and national unification. As the Northern Expedition neared success, Chiang in December 1927 unleashed a [[White Terror (mainland China)|White Terror]] that virtually wiped out the CCP in the cities. [[Mao Zedong]], whose [[Autumn Harvest Uprising]] had been a spectacular failure in mobilizing local peasants, nevertheless became Party leader and established rural bases and creation of the [[Chinese Red Army]] to protect them. During the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945) Mao led a [[Yan'an Rectification Movement|rectification campaign]] to emphasize [[Maoism]] and his leadership and after the war he led the CCP to victory in the [[Chinese Civil War]] (1945–1949).


In the years after 1949, the structure of the CCP remained basically the same, but the style of leadership changed several times.
In the years after 1949, the structure of the CCP remained [[Leninism|Leninist]], but the style of leadership changed several times.


== Origins of the CCP (1905–1922) ==
== Origins of the CCP (1905–1922) ==
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In the summer of 1919, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]] decided to assist people of the Far East.<ref name="CI" /> In April 1920, the Foreign Affairs Division of its [[Vladivostok]] Branch sent Grigori Voitinsky to develop Marxism in China, Korea and Japan. Voitinsky met Li, and then successfully turned Chen into a communist.<ref name="yfc">{{Cite book |last=永發 |first=陳 |title=中國共產革命七十年 |date=October 2010 |publisher=聯經 |location=Taipei}}</ref> Voitinsky found the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Communist International (Comintern) at Shanghai. On 5 July, he attended a meeting of Russian communists in China to promote the establishment of the CCP. He helped Chen found the [[Shanghai Revolutionary Bureau]], also known as the [[Shanghai Communist Group]]. Stojanovic went to [[Guangzhou]], Mamaev went to [[Wuhan]], and Broway went to Beijing to help Chinese establish communist groups. Voitinsky provided these groups with promotional, conference and study abroad expenses.<ref name="CI">{{Cite book|author=Party History Research Office of the CPC Central Committee|script-title=zh:共產國際、聯共（布）與中國革命檔案資料叢書|date=1997|publisher=Beijing Library Press|pages=39–51}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=Hunt |first=Michael |title=The World Transformed:1945 to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |page=114}}</ref>
In the summer of 1919, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]] decided to assist people of the Far East.<ref name="CI" /> In April 1920, the Foreign Affairs Division of its [[Vladivostok]] Branch sent Grigori Voitinsky to develop Marxism in China, Korea and Japan. Voitinsky met Li, and then successfully turned Chen into a communist.<ref name="yfc">{{Cite book |last=永發 |first=陳 |title=中國共產革命七十年 |date=October 2010 |publisher=聯經 |location=Taipei}}</ref> Voitinsky found the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Communist International (Comintern) at Shanghai. On 5 July, he attended a meeting of Russian communists in China to promote the establishment of the CCP. He helped Chen found the [[Shanghai Revolutionary Bureau]], also known as the [[Shanghai Communist Group]]. Stojanovic went to [[Guangzhou]], Mamaev went to [[Wuhan]], and Broway went to Beijing to help Chinese establish communist groups. Voitinsky provided these groups with promotional, conference and study abroad expenses.<ref name="CI">{{Cite book|author=Party History Research Office of the CPC Central Committee|script-title=zh:共產國際、聯共（布）與中國革命檔案資料叢書|date=1997|publisher=Beijing Library Press|pages=39–51}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=Hunt |first=Michael |title=The World Transformed:1945 to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |page=114}}</ref>


The preliminary organization and recruitment for a Chinese Communist Party were done by Grigori Voitinsky, who led the foundation,<ref>{{cite web |last1=张 |first1=申府 |title="一大" 前后: 中国共产党第一次代表大会前后资料选编, 第 2 卷 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aahTAAAAIAAJ&q=%E5%BC%A0%E7%94%B3%E5%BA%9C%E9%82%A3%E6%97%B6(%E6%88%91%E4%BB%AC)%E7%9B%B8%E5%BD%93%E5%B9%BC%E7%A8%9A,%E5%8F%91%E8%B5%B7%E5%BB%BA%E5%85%9A%E6%98%AF%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85+%E6%8E%A8%E5%8A%A8%E7%9A%84,%E8%BF%98%E6%9D%A5%E4%BF%A1%E5%95%86%E8%AE%AE,%E6%98%AF%E5%8F%AB%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A,%E8%BF%98%E6%98%AF%E5%8F%AB%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%85%9A+%3F+%E6%B2%A1%E6%9C%89%E5%AE%9A%E3%80%82%E5%90%8E%E6%9D%A5,%E5%A8%81%E9%87%91%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E8%AF%B4,%E8%BF%98%E6%98%AF%E5%8F%AB%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A,%E6%88%91%E4%BB%AC%E5%90%8C%E6%84%8F%E4%BA%86 |website=Google Books |year=1980 |publisher=中国社会科学院}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=毛 |first1=泽东 |title=中国共产党创建史研究文集 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvpPAAAAIAAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E6%98%AF%E5%9C%A8%E5%88%97%E5%AE%81%E7%9A%84%E5%8F%B7%E5%8F%AC%E4%B9%8B%E4%B8%8B%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E8%B5%B7%E6%9D%A5%E7%9A%84,%E6%98%AF%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7+%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%B4%BE%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%A5%E5%B8%AE%E5%8A%A9%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E7%9A%84,%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%8A%E5%B0%B1%E6%9C%89%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E5%88%B0%E4%BC%9A |year=1991 |publisher=百家出版社出版|isbn=9787805761985 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite web |last1=張 |first1=國燾 |title=我的囘憶 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIYHAQAAIAAJ&q=%E8%88%87%E7%94%B1%E5%9C%8B%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%85%E7%99%BC%E7%94%9F%E8%81%AF%E7%B5%A1%E3%80%81+%E5%8D%94%E5%8A%A9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A2%E9%BB%A8%E7%9A%84%E7%B5%84%E6%88%90%E3%80%81%E4%B8%A6%E4%BF%83%E9%80%B2%E5%85%B6%E8%88%87%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A2%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E7%9A%84%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82,%E5%A8%81%E9%87%91%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E5%AF%A6%E7%82%BA%E6%9C%80%E5%88%9D%E4%B8%94%E6%9C%80%E6%9C%89%E8%B2%A2%E7%8D%BB%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E5%80%8B%E4%BA%BA |website=Google Books |year=1971 |publisher=明報月刊出版社}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chiang |first1=Kai Shek |title=Soviet Russia in China a summing up at seventy |url=https://archive.org/stream/sovietrussiainch009229mbp/sovietrussiainch009229mbp_djvu.txt |website=Internet Archive |year=1957 |publisher=Central Cultural Relics Supply Company, Liming Culture}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Liu |first1=Jianyi |title=The origins of the Chinese Communist Party and the role played by Soviet Russia and the Comintern |type=PhD |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-origins-of-the-Chinese-Communist-Party-and-the-Liu/f55a378228ed572dd8443763c10d9d3b0f7d427c |year=2000 |publisher=University of York |s2cid=155366440}}</ref> Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in 1920 and 1921 as a study society and an informal network. Informal meetings were held in China in 1920 as well as overseas.
The preliminary organization and recruitment for a Chinese Communist Party were done by Grigori Voitinsky, who led the foundation,<ref>{{cite web |last1=张 |first1=申府 |title="一大" 前后: 中国共产党第一次代表大会前后资料选编, 第 2 卷 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aahTAAAAIAAJ&q=%E5%BC%A0%E7%94%B3%E5%BA%9C%E9%82%A3%E6%97%B6(%E6%88%91%E4%BB%AC)%E7%9B%B8%E5%BD%93%E5%B9%BC%E7%A8%9A,%E5%8F%91%E8%B5%B7%E5%BB%BA%E5%85%9A%E6%98%AF%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85+%E6%8E%A8%E5%8A%A8%E7%9A%84,%E8%BF%98%E6%9D%A5%E4%BF%A1%E5%95%86%E8%AE%AE,%E6%98%AF%E5%8F%AB%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A,%E8%BF%98%E6%98%AF%E5%8F%AB%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%85%9A+%3F+%E6%B2%A1%E6%9C%89%E5%AE%9A%E3%80%82%E5%90%8E%E6%9D%A5,%E5%A8%81%E9%87%91%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E8%AF%B4,%E8%BF%98%E6%98%AF%E5%8F%AB%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A,%E6%88%91%E4%BB%AC%E5%90%8C%E6%84%8F%E4%BA%86 |website=Google Books |year=1980 |publisher=中国社会科学院}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=毛 |first1=泽东 |title=中国共产党创建史研究文集 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvpPAAAAIAAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E6%98%AF%E5%9C%A8%E5%88%97%E5%AE%81%E7%9A%84%E5%8F%B7%E5%8F%AC%E4%B9%8B%E4%B8%8B%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E8%B5%B7%E6%9D%A5%E7%9A%84,%E6%98%AF%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7+%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%B4%BE%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%A5%E5%B8%AE%E5%8A%A9%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E7%9A%84,%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%8A%E5%B0%B1%E6%9C%89%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E5%88%B0%E4%BC%9A |year=1991 |publisher=百家出版社出版|isbn=9787805761985 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite web |last1=張 |first1=國燾 |title=我的囘憶 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIYHAQAAIAAJ&q=%E8%88%87%E7%94%B1%E5%9C%8B%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%85%E7%99%BC%E7%94%9F%E8%81%AF%E7%B5%A1%E3%80%81+%E5%8D%94%E5%8A%A9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A2%E9%BB%A8%E7%9A%84%E7%B5%84%E6%88%90%E3%80%81%E4%B8%A6%E4%BF%83%E9%80%B2%E5%85%B6%E8%88%87%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A2%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E7%9A%84%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82,%E5%A8%81%E9%87%91%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E5%AF%A6%E7%82%BA%E6%9C%80%E5%88%9D%E4%B8%94%E6%9C%80%E6%9C%89%E8%B2%A2%E7%8D%BB%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E5%80%8B%E4%BA%BA |website=Google Books |year=1971 |publisher=明報月刊出版社}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chiang |first1=Kai Shek |title=Soviet Russia in China a summing up at seventy |url=https://archive.org/stream/sovietrussiainch009229mbp/sovietrussiainch009229mbp_djvu.txt |website=Internet Archive |year=1957 |publisher=Central Cultural Relics Supply Company, Liming Culture}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Liu |first1=Jianyi |title=The origins of the Chinese Communist Party and the role played by Soviet Russia and the Comintern |type=PhD |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-origins-of-the-Chinese-Communist-Party-and-the-Liu/f55a378228ed572dd8443763c10d9d3b0f7d427c |year=2000 |publisher=University of York |s2cid=155366440}}</ref> Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in 1920 and 1921 as a study society and an informal network. Informal meetings were held in China in 1920 as well as overseas.{{cn}}


===First Congress===
===First Congress===
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In August 1922, Sneevliet called a surprise special plenum of the central committee. During the meeting Sneevliet proposed that party members join the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party) on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success. Li Dazhao, Cai Heshen and Gao Yuhan opposed the motion, whereupon Sneevliet invoked the authority of the Comintern and forced the CCP to accept his decision.<ref>Schwartz, p. 41.</ref>
In August 1922, Sneevliet called a surprise special plenum of the central committee. During the meeting Sneevliet proposed that party members join the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party) on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success. Li Dazhao, Cai Heshen and Gao Yuhan opposed the motion, whereupon Sneevliet invoked the authority of the Comintern and forced the CCP to accept his decision.<ref>Schwartz, p. 41.</ref>


Under the guidance of the Comintern, the CCP was reorganized along [[Leninist]] lines in 1923, in preparation for the [[Northern Expedition (1926–1927)|Northern Expedition]]. The Northern Expedition was intended to unify China under a single government.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Opper |first=Marc |title=People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-472-90125-8 |location=Ann Arbor |pages= |doi=10.3998/mpub.11413902 |jstor=10.3998/mpub.11413902|s2cid=211359950 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23824 }}</ref>{{Rp|page=35}} The nascent party was not held in high regard. [[Karl Radek]], one of the five founding leaders of the Comintern, said in November 1922 that the CCP was not highly regarded in Moscow. Moreover, the CCP was divided into two camps, one led by Deng Zhongxia and Li Dazhao on the more moderate "bourgeois, national revolution" model and the other by Zhang Guotao, Lou Zhanglong, He Mengxiong and Chen Duxiu on the strongly anti-imperialism side.<ref>Schwartz, p. 37-38.</ref> [[Mikhail Markovich Borodin]] negotiated with Sun Yat-sen and [[Wang Jingwei]] the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CCP's incorporation into the newly expanded party. Borodin and General Vasilii Blyukher (known as ''Galen'') worked with [[Chiang Kai-shek]] to found the [[Republic of China Military Academy|Whampoa Military Academy]]. The CCP's reliance on the leadership of the Comintern provided a strong indication of the [[First United Front|First United Front's]] fragility.<ref>Schwartz, p. 50-51.</ref> The death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 created great uncertainty regarding who would lead the party, and whether they would still work with the CCP. Despite the tensions, the [[Northern Expedition]] (1926–1927) led by the Kuomintang, with participation of the CCP made quick gains in overthrowing the warlord government.
Under the guidance of the Comintern, the CCP was reorganized along [[Leninist]] lines in 1923, in preparation for the [[Northern Expedition (1926–1927)|Northern Expedition]]. The Northern Expedition was intended to unify China under a single government.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Opper |first=Marc |title=People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-472-90125-8 |location=Ann Arbor |pages= |doi=10.3998/mpub.11413902 |jstor=10.3998/mpub.11413902|s2cid=211359950 |url=http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23824 }}</ref>{{Rp|page=35}} The nascent party was not held in high regard. [[Karl Radek]], one of the five founding leaders of the Comintern, said in November 1922 that the CCP was not highly regarded in Moscow. Moreover, the CCP was divided into two camps, one led by Deng Zhongxia and Li Dazhao on the more moderate "bourgeois, national revolution" model and the other by Zhang Guotao, Lou Zhanglong, He Mengxiong and Chen Duxiu on the strongly anti-imperialism side.<ref>Schwartz, p. 37-38.</ref> [[Mikhail Markovich Borodin]] negotiated with Sun Yat-sen and [[Wang Jingwei]] the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CCP's incorporation into the newly expanded party. Borodin and General Vasilii Blyukher (known as ''Galen'') worked with [[Chiang Kai-shek]] to found the [[Republic of China Military Academy|Whampoa Military Academy]]. The CCP's reliance on the leadership of the Comintern provided a strong indication of the [[First United Front|First United Front's]] fragility.<ref>Schwartz, p. 50-51.</ref> The death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 created uncertainty regarding who would lead the party, and whether they would still work with the CCP. Despite the tensions, the [[Northern Expedition]] (1926–1927) led by the Kuomintang, with participation of the CCP made quick gains in overthrowing the warlord government.{{cn}}


== Chinese Civil War (1927–1937) ==
== Chinese Civil War (1927–1937) ==

Revision as of 15:57, 23 September 2023

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The history of the Chinese Communist Party began with its establishment in July 1921. A study group led by Peking University professors Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao to discuss Marxism, led to intellectuals officially founding the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in July 1921. In 1923, Sun Yat-sen invited the CCP to form a United Front, and to join his Nationalist Party (GMD) in Canton for training under representatives of the Communist International, the Soviet Union's international organization. The Soviet representatives reorganized both parties into Leninist parties. Rather than the loose organization that characterized the two parties until then, the Leninist party operated on the principle of democratic centralism, in which the collective leadership set standards for membership and an all powerful Central Committee determined the party line, which all members must follow.

The CCP grew rapidly in the Northern Expedition (1925–1927), a military unification campaign led by Sun Yat-sen's successor, Chiang Kai-shek. The Party, still led by urban intellectuals, developed a radical agenda of mass mobilization, labor organization, rural uprisings, anti-imperialism, and national unification. As the Northern Expedition neared success, Chiang in December 1927 unleashed a White Terror that virtually wiped out the CCP in the cities. Mao Zedong, whose Autumn Harvest Uprising had been a spectacular failure in mobilizing local peasants, nevertheless became Party leader and established rural bases and creation of the Chinese Red Army to protect them. During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) Mao led a rectification campaign to emphasize Maoism and his leadership and after the war he led the CCP to victory in the Chinese Civil War (1945–1949).

In the years after 1949, the structure of the CCP remained Leninist, but the style of leadership changed several times.

Origins of the CCP (1905–1922)

Before the First Congress

Flag of the Chinese Communist Party
Flag of the Chinese Communist Party before the 1990s
Location of the 1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in July 1921, on Xintiandi, former French Concession, Shanghai.

Marxist and socialist ideas began to take root in China towards the end of the Qing dynasty as Chinese intellectuals began studying the work of European philosophers.[1] One of the earliest Chinese promoters of Marxism was Zhu Zhixin, a revolutionary author and close colleague of Sun Yat-sen who in 1905 published the first Chinese translation of The Communist Manifesto.[1][2] Sun Yat-Sen was also an early proponent of certain socialist ideals, arguing that socialism and communism were both subsets of the doctrine of Minsheng, or People's Livelihood, an idea centered around the taxation of land.[3] The CCP still claims descent from Sun Yat-Sen, viewing him as a proto-communist and one of the founders of their movement.[4][5][6] Sun stated, “Our Principle of Livelihood is a form of communism”.[7] His widow, Soong Ching-ling, eventually became Honorary President of the PRC.[8]

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Following the 1919 May Fourth Movement, communism began to gain serious traction in China. In June 1920, Communist International (Comintern) agent Grigori Voitinsky was one of several sent to China, where he met Li Dazhao and other reformers. While in China, Voitinsky financed the founding of the Socialist Youth Corps.[9]: 32–35  One of the agents worked with Chen Duxiu to draft a manifesto. In June 1921, Henk Sneevliet, an overbearing Dutch agent from the Communist International arrived in Shanghai, and arranged a meeting in a deserted girls' school in the French Concession to which thirteen of the fifty-seven declared Communists were invited There, they proclaimed the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party."[1]

In the summer of 1919, the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) decided to assist people of the Far East.[10] In April 1920, the Foreign Affairs Division of its Vladivostok Branch sent Grigori Voitinsky to develop Marxism in China, Korea and Japan. Voitinsky met Li, and then successfully turned Chen into a communist.[11] Voitinsky found the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Communist International (Comintern) at Shanghai. On 5 July, he attended a meeting of Russian communists in China to promote the establishment of the CCP. He helped Chen found the Shanghai Revolutionary Bureau, also known as the Shanghai Communist Group. Stojanovic went to Guangzhou, Mamaev went to Wuhan, and Broway went to Beijing to help Chinese establish communist groups. Voitinsky provided these groups with promotional, conference and study abroad expenses.[10][12]

The preliminary organization and recruitment for a Chinese Communist Party were done by Grigori Voitinsky, who led the foundation,[13][2][3][14][15] Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in 1920 and 1921 as a study society and an informal network. Informal meetings were held in China in 1920 as well as overseas.[citation needed]

First Congress

The official beginning of the CCP was the 1st Congress held in Shanghai and Jiaxing in July 1921. Some say the congress was composed of 13 men, but the official CCP version is 12, and other sources also disagree.[citation needed]

The birth of the CCP (totaling 50 to 60 members) was declared while a meeting was held on a boat on South Lake. The General Assembly adopted The First Program of the Communist Party of China, stating that "the Party is to be named the Communist Party of China" and specifying its objectives: "to overthrow the power of the capitalist class[,]" to "eradicate capitalism and private ownership of property[,]" and to "join the Comintern."[16] The key delegates in the congress were Li Dazhao, Chen Duxiu, Chen Gongbo, Tan Pingshan, Zhang Guotao, He Mengxiong, Lou Zhanglong and Deng Zhongxia.[citation needed]

Mao Zedong was present at the first congress as one of two delegates from a Hunan communist group. Other attendees included Dong Biwu, Li Hanjun, Li Da, Chen Tanqiu, Liu Renjing, Zhou Fohai, He Shuheng, Deng Enming. Two representatives from the Comintern were also present, one of them being Henk Sneevliet (also known by the single name 'Maring'[17]). Notably absent at this early point were future leaders Li Lisan and Qu Qiubai.[citation needed]

The period of the CCP's development between 1921 and 1934 is often referred to as the "Communist International era" because the Soviet Union was the key sponsor of Party activities.[18]: 35 

First United Front (1922–1927)

In August 1922, Sneevliet called a surprise special plenum of the central committee. During the meeting Sneevliet proposed that party members join the Kuomintang (KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party) on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success. Li Dazhao, Cai Heshen and Gao Yuhan opposed the motion, whereupon Sneevliet invoked the authority of the Comintern and forced the CCP to accept his decision.[19]

Under the guidance of the Comintern, the CCP was reorganized along Leninist lines in 1923, in preparation for the Northern Expedition. The Northern Expedition was intended to unify China under a single government.[20]: 35  The nascent party was not held in high regard. Karl Radek, one of the five founding leaders of the Comintern, said in November 1922 that the CCP was not highly regarded in Moscow. Moreover, the CCP was divided into two camps, one led by Deng Zhongxia and Li Dazhao on the more moderate "bourgeois, national revolution" model and the other by Zhang Guotao, Lou Zhanglong, He Mengxiong and Chen Duxiu on the strongly anti-imperialism side.[21] Mikhail Markovich Borodin negotiated with Sun Yat-sen and Wang Jingwei the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CCP's incorporation into the newly expanded party. Borodin and General Vasilii Blyukher (known as Galen) worked with Chiang Kai-shek to found the Whampoa Military Academy. The CCP's reliance on the leadership of the Comintern provided a strong indication of the First United Front's fragility.[22] The death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 created uncertainty regarding who would lead the party, and whether they would still work with the CCP. Despite the tensions, the Northern Expedition (1926–1927) led by the Kuomintang, with participation of the CCP made quick gains in overthrowing the warlord government.[citation needed]

Chinese Civil War (1927–1937)

In 1927, the KMT broke the United Front with the Shanghai Massacre and violently suppressed the CCP.[20]: 35  CCP cadres fled urban areas and, in southern China, led their small armies to establish a base at Jinggangshan.[20]: 35  The Red Army left Jiaggangshan following the Kuomintang's counterinsurgency campaigns, and moved into an areas bordering Jiangxi and Fujian provinces.[20]: 35 

Chinese Soviet Republic

In 1931, the CCP consolidated a number these base areas into a state, the Chinese Soviet Republic (CSR).[20]: 1  The CSR reached its peak in 1933.[20]: 1  It governed a population which exceeded 3.4 million in an area of approximately 70,000 square kilometers.[20]: 1  The CSR had a central government as well as local and regional governments.[20]: 1  It operated institutions including an education system, court system, and education system.[20]: 1  The CSR also issued currency.[20]: 1 

Long March

Although various counter-insurgency campaigns by the Kuomintang failed to defeat the CSR, the fifth encirclement campaign succeeded.[23] The CCP had to give up their bases and started the Long March (1934–1935) to search for a new base. During the Long March, the party leadership re-examined its policy and blamed their failure on the CCP military leader Otto Braun, a German sent by Comintern. During the Long March, the native Communists, such as Mao Zedong and Zhu De gained power. The Comintern and Soviet Union lost control over the CCP. They settled in Shaanxi,[24] where there was an existing Communist base.

The Western world first got a clear view of the main base of the Chinese Communist Party through Edgar Snow's Red Star Over China. Snow was also the first person to present Mao as the main leader – he was previously seen as just a guerilla leader and mostly as second to Zhu De (Chu Teh).[25]

During this period, young people dominated the Party from its lowest to its highest levels.[26]: 145  According to Snow, the average age of Red Army rank-and-file soldiers was nineteen as of 1936.[26]: 145  The Party's highest-ranking leaders had been students during the May Fourth period and were thus in their mid-thirties or forties after more than a decade of leadership.[26]: 145 

World War II and Second United Front (1937–1945)

The Party leadership in 1938. Front row, left to right: Kang Sheng, Mao Zedong, Wang Jiaxiang, Zhu De, Xiang Ying, Wang Ming. Back row, left to right: Chen Yun, Bo Gu, Peng Dehuai, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, Zhang Wentian

During the Second Sino-Japanese war (1937–1945), the CCP and the KMT were temporarily in an alliance so they could fight against their common enemy. The Communist government moved from Bao'an (Pao An) to Yan'an (Yenan) in December 1936.[27] The Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army became army groups belonging to the national army (8th route army and New 4th Army), and the Soviet Republic of China changed its name to the Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region.[28] However, essentially the army and the region controlled by CCP remained independent from the KMT's government.

In eight years, the CCP's membership increased from 40,000 to 1,200,000 and the size of its military forces increased – from 30,000 to approximately one million in addition to more than one million members of militia support groups.[29]

It is widely believed that without the Japanese invasion, the CCP might not have developed so rapidly.[citation needed] This accelerated development is attributed by some[who?] to the lack of attention the CCP paid to the war against Japan, they argue that the CCP took advantage of the KMT's preoccupation with the Japanese to gain an edge on the nationalists.[citation needed] This, however, was not entirely true as the CCP did wage costly Hundred Regiments Offensive and guerrilla wars against Japanese occupied areas.[30] However, Japanese academic Homare Endo states that Mao Zedong colluded with the invading Japanese forces to assist them in effectively attacking KMT forces.[31]

China under Mao (1946–1976)

After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Although the CCP participated in the National Constituent Assembly, due to the attacks by the Nationalist government, the party was officially banned by the government in June 1946, with party leaders including Mao Zedong wanted.[32]

Despite initial gains by the KMT, they were eventually defeated and forced to flee to off-shore islands, most notably Taiwan. In the war, the United States supported the Kuomintang and the Soviet Union supported the CCP, but both to limited extent. With the Kuomintang's defeat & retreat to Taiwan, Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949.[citation needed]

On 1 October 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the establishment of the PRC before a crowd at Tiananmen Square. The CCP headed the Central People's Government.[33] From this time through the 1980s, top leaders of the CCP (like Mao Zedong, Lin Biao, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping) were largely the same military leaders prior to the PRC's founding.[34] As a result, informal personal ties between political and military leaders dominated civil-military relations.[34]

Chinese communists celebrate Joseph Stalin's birthday, 1949.

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin proposed a one-party state when Liu Shaoqi visited the Soviet Union in 1952.[35] In 1954, the PRC constitution was enacted, which changed the previous coalition government and established the CCP's sole ruling system.[36][37]

During the 1960s and 1970s, the CCP experienced a significant ideological separation from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[38] By that time, Mao had begun saying that the "continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, leading to the Cultural Revolution in which millions were persecuted and killed.[39]

Political and economic reforms (1976–2012)

Leadership of Deng Xiaoping

Following Mao's death in 1976, a power struggle between CCP chairman Hua Guofeng and Vice-chairman Deng Xiaoping erupted.[40] Deng won the struggle, and became the "paramount leader" in 1978.[40] Deng, alongside Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang, spearheaded the Reform and opening policy, and introduced the ideological concept of socialism with Chinese characteristics, opening China to the world's markets.[41] In reversing some of Mao's "leftist" policies, Deng argued that a socialist state could use the market economy without itself being capitalist.[42] While asserting the political power of the CCP, the change in policy generated significant economic growth.[43] The new ideology, however, was contested on both sides of the spectrum, by Maoists as well as by those supporting political liberalization. With other social factors, the conflicts culminated in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.[44] The protests having been crushed, Deng's vision on economics prevailed, and by the early 1990s the concept of a socialist market economy had been introduced.[45] In 1997, Deng's beliefs (Deng Xiaoping Theory), were embedded in the CCP constitution.[46]

In 1980, Deng called for a rejuvenation of the cadre system via promotion of "revolutionary, younger, more educated, and more technically specialized" cadre.[47]: 120  Subsequent regulations included establishing a cadre retirement system, age limits for leading cadres, and new recruitment and promotion rules.[47]: 120–121  The CCP also implemented the "third echelon" policy.[47]: 121  The policy sought to promote a total of 135,000 younger officials at all levels to prepare for the retirement for the impending retirement of older leaders in 1985.[47]: 121–122 

Flag of the Chinese Communist Party from 17 June 1951 to 21 July 1996

Leadership of Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao

CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng as "paramount leader" in the 1990s, and continued most of his policies.[48] Since Jiang's administration, the highest positions in the Party-state (General Secretary, Chair of the Central Military Commission, and President of China) have all been simultaneously held by a single leader.[18]: 37 

In the 1990s, the CCP transformed from a veteran revolutionary leadership that was both leading militarily and politically, to a political elite increasingly regenerated according to institutionalized norms in the civil bureaucracy.[34] Leadership was largely selected based on rules and norms on promotion and retirement, educational background, and managerial and technical expertise.[34] There is a largely separate group of professionalized military officers, serving under top CCP leadership largely through formal relationships within institutional channels.[34]

As part of Jiang Zemin's nominal legacy, the CCP ratified the Three Represents for the 2003 revision of the party's constitution, as a "guiding ideology" to encourage the party to represent "advanced productive forces, the progressive course of China's culture, and the fundamental interests of the people."[49] The theory legitimized the entry of private business owners and bourgeois elements into the CCP.[49] Hu Jintao, Jiang Zemin's successor as general secretary, took office in 2002.[50] Unlike Mao, Deng and Jiang Zemin, Hu laid emphasis on collective leadership and opposed one-man dominance of the political system.[50] The insistence on focusing on economic growth led to a wide range of serious social problems. To address these, Hu introduced two main ideological concepts: the Scientific Outlook on Development and Harmonious Socialist Society.[51]

Under Xi Jinping (2012–present)

Hu resigned from his post as CCP general secretary and Chairman of the CMC at the 18th National Congress held in 2012, and was succeeded in both posts by Xi Jinping.[52][53] Since taking power, Xi has initiated a wide-reaching anti-corruption campaign, while centralizing powers in the office of CCP general secretary at the expense of the collective leadership of prior decades. Commentators have described the campaign as a defining part of Xi's leadership as well as "the principal reason why he has been able to consolidate his power so quickly and effectively."[54] Foreign commentators have likened him to Mao.[55] Xi's leadership has also overseen an increase in the CCP's role in China.[56] Xi has added his ideology, named after himself, into the CCP constitution in 2017.[57] As has been speculated, Xi Jinping may not retire from his top posts after serving for 10 years in 2022.[34][58]

On 1 October 2020, U.S. Congressman Scott Perry introduced legislation to add the CCP to the Top International Criminal Organizations Target (TICOT) List and provide the United States law enforcement agencies a strategic directive to target the CCP's activity.[59]

On 21 October 2020, the Subcommittee on International Human Rights (SDIR) of the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development condemned the persecution of Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang by the Government of China and concluded that the Chinese Communist Party's actions amount to genocide of the Uyghurs per the Genocide Convention.[60][61][62][63]

On 1 July 2021, the celebrations of the 100th anniversary of the CCP, one of the Two Centenaries, took place.[64]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Communist Party of China.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinese Soviet Republic.

References

  1. ^ a b c The Penguin History of Modern China, Penguin 2008, pages 143–4.
  2. ^ a b 毛, 泽东 (1991). 中国共产党创建史研究文集. 百家出版社出版. ISBN 9787805761985.
  3. ^ a b 張, 國燾 (1971). "我的囘憶". Google Books. 明報月刊出版社.
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Works cited

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