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After a century of clearcutting, this forest, near the source of the Lewis and Clark River in Clatsop County, Oregon, is a patchwork. In each patch, most of the trees are the same age.

Clearcutting, clearfelling or clearcut logging is a forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, it is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ecosystems and to promote select species^[1] that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age stands.^[2] Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of deforestation that destroys natural habitats^[3] and contributes to climate change.^[4] Environmentalists, traditional owners, local residents and others have regularly campaigned against clearcutting, including through the use of blockades and nonviolent direct action.^[5]

Clearcutting is the most common and economically profitable method of logging. However, it also may create detrimental side effects, such as the loss of topsoil, the costs of which are intensely debated by economic, environmental and other interests. In addition to the purpose of harvesting wood, clearcutting is used to create land for farming.^[6] Ultimately, the effects of clearcutting on the land will depend on how well or poorly the forest is managed,^[7] and whether it is converted to non-forest land uses after clearcuts.^[8]

While deforestation of both temperate and tropical forests through clearcutting has received considerable media attention in recent years, the other large forests of the world, such as the taiga, also known as boreal forests, are also under threat of rapid development. In Russia, North America and Scandinavia, creating protected areas and granting long-term leases to tend and regenerate trees—thus maximizing future harvests—are among the means used to limit the harmful effects of clearcutting.^[9] Long-term studies of clearcut forests, such as studies of the Pasoh Rainforest in Malaysia, are also important in providing insights into the conservation of forest resources worldwide.^[10]

Types[edit]

Many variations of clearcutting exist; the most common professional practices are:^[11]

Standard (uniform) clearcut – removal of every stem (whether commercially viable or not), so no canopy remains.
Patch clearcut – removal of all the stems in a limited, predetermined area (patch).
Strip clearcut – removal of all the stems in a row (strip), usually placed perpendicular to the prevailing winds in order to minimize the possibility of windthrow.^[12]
Clearcutting-with-reserves – removal of the majority of standing stems, leaving a few reserved for other purposes (for example as snags for wildlife habitat), (often confused with the seed tree method).
Slash-and-burn – the permanent conversion of tropical and subtropicals forests for agricultural purposes. This is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical forests where population growth creates land needs from smallholders in developing and least developed countries. Slash-and-burn entails the removal of all stems in a particular area. This can be a form of deforestation, when the land is converted to other uses. However, some indigenous forest peoples, for example the 19th century Forest Finns rotate over the land and it does return to forest and this would be sustainable. Slash and burn techniques are typically used by civilians in search of land for living and agricultural purposes. The forest is first clear cut, and the remaining material is burned. One of the driving forces behind this process is a result of overpopulation and subsequent sprawl. These methods also occur as a result of commercial farming. The lumber is sold for profit, and the land, cleared of all remaining brush and suitable for agricultural development, is sold to farmers.^[6]

Clearcutting contrasts with selective cutting, such as high grading, in which only commercially valuable trees are harvested, leaving all others. This practice can reduce the genetic viability of the forest over time, resulting in poorer or less vigorous offspring in the stand.^{[citation needed]} Clearcutting also differs from a coppicing system, by allowing revegetation by seedlings. Additionally, destructive forms of forest management are commonly referred to as 'clearcutting'.

Clearcutting regeneration, harvesting or system[edit]

Clearcut logging in the Blue Ridge Mountains (Tennessee) in 1936

Clearcutting can be differentiated into

Clearcutting – clean felling by complete exploitation and removal of all the trees in one operation ... a harvesting method
Clearcutting method – a method for regenerating an even-aged community by removing all the mature trees
Clearcutting system – a silvicultural system incorporating the clearcutting method to remove (clear) the mature community over a considerable area at one time^[13]

Confusion between these different uses of the term is common. Furthermore, as indicated above many variations mean technically correct usage may not be descriptive enough to know what is meant on that particular occasion.^{[citation needed]}

A clearcut is distinguished from selective logging where typically only a few trees per hectare are harvested in proportions dictated by management objectives. Clearcut logging is also distinct from wildland fire use, and from forest thinning. In these latter two it is common practice to leave trees that are considered undesirable, such as those that are too diseased, stunted or small to be marketable. Selective logging is usually practiced in areas with access to infrastructure.^{[citation needed]}

Effects on the environment[edit]

Environmental groups criticize clear-cutting as destructive to water, soil, wildlife, and atmosphere, and recommend the use of sustainable alternatives.^[14] Clear-cutting impacts the water cycle. Trees hold water and topsoil. Clear-cutting in forests removes the trees which would otherwise have been transpiring large volumes of water and also physically damages the grasses, mosses, lichens, and ferns populating the understory. Removal or damage of the biota reduces the local capacity to retain water, which can exacerbate flooding and lead to increased leaching of nutrients from the soil. The maximum nutrient loss occurs around year two and returns to pre-clearcutting levels by year four after the cut.^[15]

Removing trees surrounding stream banks prevents shading of the water body, which raises the temperature of riverbanks and rivers. Because the trees no longer hold down the soil, riverbanks increasingly erode as sediment into the water, creating excess nutrients which exacerbate the changes in the river and create problems miles away, in the sea.^[14] Clear cutting on a large scale in a watershed can cause sediment and nutrients that leach into the streams cause the acidity of the stream to increase.^[15] The nutrient content of the soil was found to return to five percent of pre-clearcutting levels after 64 years.^[16]

Upper town residential area of Britannia Beach in British Columbia, Canada, in September 1919. The community was built in a clearcut area adjacent to the Britannia Mines operations; stumps and stray logs are visible throughout the site and community.

Negative impacts[edit]

Clearcutting can have negative impacts, both for humans and local flora and fauna.^[17] A study from the University of Oregon found that in certain zones, areas that were clear cut had nearly three times the amount of erosion due to slides. When the roads required by the clearcutting were factored in, the increase in slide activity appeared to be about 5 times greater compared to nearby forested areas. The roads built for clearcutting interrupt normal surface drainage because the roads are not as permeable as the normal ground cover. The roads also change subsurface water movement due to the redistribution of soil and rock.^[18] Clearcutting may lead to increased stream flow during storms, loss of habitat and species diversity, opportunities for invasive and weedy species, and negative impacts on scenery,^[19] specifically, a growth of contempt by those familiar with the area for the wooded, planet aftermaths,^[20] as well as a decrease in property values; diminished recreation, hunting, and fishing opportunities.^[21] Clearcutting decreases the occurrence of natural disturbances like forest fires and natural uprooting. Over time, this can deplete the local seed bank.^[22]

In temperate and boreal climates, clearcutting can have an effect on the depth of snow, which is usually greater in a clearcut area than in the forest, due to a lack of interception and evapotranspiration. This results in less soil frost, which in combination with higher levels of direct sunlight results in snowmelt occurring earlier in the spring and earlier peak runoff.^[23]

The world's rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of deforestation. Between June 2000 and June 2008, more than 150,000 km² (58,000 sq mi) of rainforest were cleared in the Brazilian Amazon. Huge areas of forest have already been lost. For example, only eight to fourteen percent of the Atlantic Forest in South America now remains.^[24]^[25] While deforestation rates have slowed since 2004, forest loss is expected to continue for the foreseeable future.^[26] Farmers slash and burn large parcels of forest every year to create grazing and croplands, but the forest's nutrient-poor soil often renders the land ill-suited for agriculture, and within a year or two, the farmers move on.^[27]

Positive perspectives[edit]

Clearcutting can be practiced to encourage the growth and proliferation of tree species that require high light intensity.^[28] Generally, a harvest area wider than double the height of the adjacent trees will no longer be subject to the moderating influence of the woodland on the microclimate.^[2] The width of the harvest area can thus determine which species will come to dominate. Those with high tolerance to extremes in temperature, soil moisture, and resistance to browsing may be established, in particular secondary successional pioneer species.^{[citation needed]}

Clearcutting can be used by foresters as a method of mimicking a natural disturbance and increasing primary successional species, such as poplar (aspen), willow and black cherry in North America. Clearcutting has also proved to be effective in creating animal habitat and browsing areas, which otherwise would not exist without natural stand-replacing disturbances such as wildfires, large scale windthrow, or avalanches.

Clearcuts are used to help regenerate species that cannot compete in mature forests. A number of them are aspen, jack pine, and, in areas with poor soils, oaks—are important species for both game and nongame wildlife species. Clearcutting can also lead to increased vascular-plant diversity in the area. This is most pronounced after a couple years of clearcutting and in herb-rich forests where scarification took place.^[22]

No significant changes in water temperature were observed when patch clearcutting was done 100 ft (30 m) away from a river. This suggests that patch clearcutting is a possible solution to concerns about changes in water temperature due to clearcutting. The effects of clearcutting on soil nutrient content were not examined in this study.^[29]

More recently, forest managers have found that clearcutting oak stands helps regenerate oak forests in areas of poor soil. The tree canopies in oak forests often shade out the ground, making it impossible for newly sprouted oaks to grow. When the mature trees are removed, the saplings stand a chance of recruiting into the forest.^[30]

Effects on wildlife[edit]

Clearcutting's main destruction is towards habitats, where it makes the habitats more vulnerable in the future to damage by insects, diseases, acid rain, and wind. Removal of all trees from an area destroys the physical habitats of many species in wildlife. Also, clearcutting can contribute to problems for ecosystems that depend on forests, like the streams and rivers that run through them.^[31]

In Canada, the black-tailed deer population is at further risk after clearcutting. The deer are a food source for wolves and cougars, as well as First Nations and other hunters. While deer may not be at risk in cities and rural countryside, where they can be seen running through neighbourhoods and feeding on farms, in higher altitude areas they require forest shelter.^[32]

In Maine[edit]

In Maine, a form of land management known as Outcome Based Forestry (OBF)^[33] allows for a wide range of harvesting as long as the removed trees do not exceed the amount of tree growth. Since implemented, this program has led to large-scale clearcutting and monoculture tree planting,^[33] and research by the University of Maine's Sustainability Solutions Initiative has found that 8,000,000 acres (3,200,000 ha) of certified forest land in (primarily northern) Maine is being overharvested, leading to reduced long-term stability of timber harvests and increased erosion and pollution in the watershed.^{[citation needed]} These practices have sparked environmental justice concerns regarding the health and well-being of foresters and locals.^{[citation needed]}

References[edit]

^ Merivale, William (2013-08-14). "Budget for a €2,500/ha reforestation cost after clearfelling mature forest". FarmIreland.ie. Retrieved 2018-05-12.
^ ^a ^b Dr. J. Bowyer; K. Fernholz; A. Lindburg; Dr. J. Howe; Dr. S. Bratkovich (2009-05-28). "The Power of Silviculture: Employing Thinning, Partial Cutting Systems and Other Intermediate Treatments to Increase Productivity, Forest Health and Public Support for Forestry" (PDF). Dovetail Partners Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-10-29. Retrieved 2009-06-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (1992). "Clear cut." Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms. p. 6. Document no. EPA-175-B-92-001. Accessed 2011-10-12.
^ Center for Biological Diversity, Tucson, AZ. "Clearcutting and Climate Change." Archived 2018-06-26 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 2011-10-12.
^ McIntyre, Iain (2020-11-04). "Environmental Blockading in Australia and Around the World – Timeline 1974–1997". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 2023-07-07.
^ ^a ^b "Global Environmental Governance Project: Forests". Archived from the original on 2012-11-18. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ Rodney J. Keenan, & J.P. (Hamish) Kimmins (1993)."The ecological effects of clear-cutting" Environmental Reviews, 1(2), 121–144. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
^ FAO (2016). "State of the World's Forests 2016"
^ Kunganavolok (June 25, 1998). "Taiga! taiga! burning bright." The Economist. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.
^ Khan, Madeline (February 9, 2004). "Clear cut forests in Malaysia offer lessons for logging worldwide." The Varsity, University of Toronto. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.
^ Helms, John A. (1998-09-01). The Dictionary of Forestry. Society of American Foresters. ISBN 978-0-939970-73-5.
^ British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC. "Clearcut System Variations." Introduction to Silvicultural Systems. Based on the published workbook: "Introduction to Silvicultural Systems, second edition (July 1999)." Forest Practices Branch.
^ Nyland, Ralph D. (2007). Silviculture: concepts and applications, Ch 13 p. 277, 2nd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.
^ ^a ^b "Clear-cutting land Greeniacs Articles". Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ ^a ^b Martin, C. W., Pierce, R. S., Likens, G. E., & Bormann, F. H. (1986). Clearcutting affects stream chemistry in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Broomall, PA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.
^ Covington, W. W. (1981). Changes in forest floor organic matter and nutrient content following clear cutting in northern hardwoods. Ecology, 41-48.
^ Forest Encyclopedia Network Advantages and disadvantages of clearcutting
^ Swanson, F.J.; Dyrness, C.T. (1975). "Impact of clear-cutting and road construction on soil erosion by landslides in the western Cascade Range, Oregon". Geology. 3 (7). Geological Society of America: 393–396. Bibcode:1975Geo.....3..393S. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1975)3<393:IOCARC>2.0.CO;2.
^ Bozic, Toso (September 14, 2009). "Woodlot Harvest". Government of Alberta: Agriculture and Rural Development. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
^ Hansis, Richard (1995). "The Social Acceptability of Clearcutting in the Pacific Northwest". Human Organization. 54 (1): 95–101. doi:10.17730/humo.54.1.yj5338v42768002r. ISSN 0018-7259. JSTOR 44126577.
^ Foothill Conservancy, Pine Grove, CA (2001). "Clearcutting in local forests." Foothill Focus. Spring 2001. Accessed 2011-10-12.
^ ^a ^b Pykälä, J. (2004). Immediate increase in plant species richness after clear-cutting of boreal herb-rich forests. Applied vegetation science, 7(1), 29-34.
^ Ottosson Löfvenius, M.; Kluge, M.; Lundmark, T.. (2003). "Snow and Soil Frost Depth in Two Types of Shelterwood and a Clear cut Area". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 18. Taylor & Francis: 54–63. doi:10.1080/0891060310002345. ISSN 0282-7581.
^ "Reforestation". Arkive. Archived from the original on 2013-03-02. Retrieved 2013-01-10.
^ "Brazil & the Atlantic Forest". The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 2016-01-11.
^ Future threats to the Amazon rainforest Archived 2012-11-01 at the Wayback Machine
^ National Geographic:rain forest threats
^ Belt, Kevin and Campbell, Robert (1999). "The Clearcutting Controversy - Myths and Facts." West Virginia University Extension Service. Accessed 2011-12-12.
^ Brown, G. W., & Krygier, J. T. (1970). Effects of clear-cutting on stream temperature. Water resources research, 6(4), 1133–1139.
^ "DNR - DNR". www.michigan.gov.
^ Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States. "Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States". Archived from the original on 2013-01-03. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ "Ancient Forest Alliance - Old Growth Forests British Columbia". www.ancientforestguide.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-26. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
^ ^a ^b "Outcome Based Forestry: Forest Policy and Management: Division of Forestry: Maine ACF". www.maine.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-26.

Roy, Vincent; Ruelb, Jean-Claude and Plamondon, André P. (1999). "Establishment, growth and survival of natural regeneration after clearcutting and drainage on forested wetlands." Forest Ecology and Management, Volume 129, Issues 1–3, 17 April 2000, pp. 253–267.

External links[edit]

[1] Merivale, William (2013-08-14). "Budget for a €2,500/ha reforestation cost after clearfelling mature forest". FarmIreland.ie. Retrieved 2018-05-12.

[Dovetail-2] Dr. J. Bowyer; K. Fernholz; A. Lindburg; Dr. J. Howe; Dr. S. Bratkovich (2009-05-28). "The Power of Silviculture: Employing Thinning, Partial Cutting Systems and Other Intermediate Treatments to Increase Productivity, Forest Health and Public Support for Forestry" (PDF). Dovetail Partners Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-10-29. Retrieved 2009-06-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[3] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (1992). "Clear cut." Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms. p. 6. Document no. EPA-175-B-92-001. Accessed 2011-10-12.

[4] Center for Biological Diversity, Tucson, AZ. "Clearcutting and Climate Change." Archived 2018-06-26 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 2011-10-12.

[5] McIntyre, Iain (2020-11-04). "Environmental Blockading in Australia and Around the World – Timeline 1974–1997". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 2023-07-07.

[environmentalgovernance.org-6] "Global Environmental Governance Project: Forests". Archived from the original on 2012-11-18. Retrieved 2012-11-08.

[7] Rodney J. Keenan, & J.P. (Hamish) Kimmins (1993)."The ecological effects of clear-cutting" Environmental Reviews, 1(2), 121–144. Retrieved September 16, 2020.

[8] FAO (2016). "State of the World's Forests 2016"

[9] Kunganavolok (June 25, 1998). "Taiga! taiga! burning bright." The Economist. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.

[10] Khan, Madeline (February 9, 2004). "Clear cut forests in Malaysia offer lessons for logging worldwide." The Varsity, University of Toronto. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.

[11] Helms, John A. (1998-09-01). The Dictionary of Forestry. Society of American Foresters. ISBN 978-0-939970-73-5.

[12] British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC. "Clearcut System Variations." Introduction to Silvicultural Systems. Based on the published workbook: "Introduction to Silvicultural Systems, second edition (July 1999)." Forest Practices Branch.

[13] Nyland, Ralph D. (2007). Silviculture: concepts and applications, Ch 13 p. 277, 2nd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.

[greeniacs.com-14] "Clear-cutting land Greeniacs Articles". Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2012-11-08.

[Martin-15] Martin, C. W., Pierce, R. S., Likens, G. E., & Bormann, F. H. (1986). Clearcutting affects stream chemistry in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Broomall, PA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

[16] Covington, W. W. (1981). Changes in forest floor organic matter and nutrient content following clear cutting in northern hardwoods. Ecology, 41-48.

[17] Forest Encyclopedia Network Advantages and disadvantages of clearcutting

[18] Swanson, F.J.; Dyrness, C.T. (1975). "Impact of clear-cutting and road construction on soil erosion by landslides in the western Cascade Range, Oregon". Geology. 3 (7). Geological Society of America: 393–396. Bibcode:1975Geo.....3..393S. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1975)3<393:IOCARC>2.0.CO;2.

[19] Bozic, Toso (September 14, 2009). "Woodlot Harvest". Government of Alberta: Agriculture and Rural Development. Retrieved 2011-03-07.

[20] Hansis, Richard (1995). "The Social Acceptability of Clearcutting in the Pacific Northwest". Human Organization. 54 (1): 95–101. doi:10.17730/humo.54.1.yj5338v42768002r. ISSN 0018-7259. JSTOR 44126577.

[21] Foothill Conservancy, Pine Grove, CA (2001). "Clearcutting in local forests." Foothill Focus. Spring 2001. Accessed 2011-10-12.

[Pykälä,_J._2004-22] Pykälä, J. (2004). Immediate increase in plant species richness after clear-cutting of boreal herb-rich forests. Applied vegetation science, 7(1), 29-34.

[23] Ottosson Löfvenius, M.; Kluge, M.; Lundmark, T.. (2003). "Snow and Soil Frost Depth in Two Types of Shelterwood and a Clear cut Area". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 18. Taylor & Francis: 54–63. doi:10.1080/0891060310002345. ISSN 0282-7581.

[24] "Reforestation". Arkive. Archived from the original on 2013-03-02. Retrieved 2013-01-10.

[25] "Brazil & the Atlantic Forest". The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 2016-01-11.

[26] Future threats to the Amazon rainforest Archived 2012-11-01 at the Wayback Machine

[27] National Geographic:rain forest threats

[28] Belt, Kevin and Campbell, Robert (1999). "The Clearcutting Controversy - Myths and Facts." West Virginia University Extension Service. Accessed 2011-12-12.

[29] Brown, G. W., & Krygier, J. T. (1970). Effects of clear-cutting on stream temperature. Water resources research, 6(4), 1133–1139.

[30] "DNR - DNR". www.michigan.gov.

[31] Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States. "Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States". Archived from the original on 2013-01-03. Retrieved 2012-11-08.

[32] "Ancient Forest Alliance - Old Growth Forests British Columbia". www.ancientforestguide.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-26. Retrieved 2012-11-08.

[:0-33] "Outcome Based Forestry: Forest Policy and Management: Division of Forestry: Maine ACF". www.maine.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-26.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Other uses|Clearcut (disambiguation)}}
 {{short description|Forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down}}
-[[File:Lewis and Clark River 2148s.JPG|thumb|After a century of clearcutting, this forest, near the source of the [[Lewis and Clark River]] in [[Clatsop County, Oregon]], is a patchwork. In each patch, most of the trees are the same age.]]
+[[File:Lewis and Clark River 2148s.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|After a century of clearcutting, this forest, near the source of the [[Lewis and Clark River]] in [[Clatsop County, Oregon]], is a patchwork. In each patch, most of the trees are the same age.]]
+[[File:Clearcutting Drawing.svg|thumb|A forest before and after clearcutting]]
-'''Clearcutting''', '''clearfelling''' or '''clearcut logging''' is a [[forestry]]/[[logging]] practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with [[Shelterwood cutting|shelterwood]] and [[Seed tree|seed tree harvests]], it is used by [[forester]]s to create certain types of forest [[ecosystems]] and to promote select species<ref>{{cite news|access-date=2018-05-12|title=Budget for a €2,500/ha reforestation cost after clearfelling mature forest |date=2013-08-14|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/farming/budget-for-a-2500ha-reforestation-cost-after-clearfelling-mature-forest-29493489.html|newspaper=FarmIreland.ie|first= William |last= Merivale }}</ref> that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age [[stand level modelling|stand]]s.<ref name="Dovetail"/> Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of [[deforestation]] that [[habitat destruction|destroys natural habitats]]<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (1992). [http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/200081E1.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=1991+Thru+1994&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&XmlQuery=&File=D%3A\zyfiles\Index%20Data\91thru94\Txt\00000004\200081E1.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h|-&MaximumDocuments=1&FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16/i425&Display=p|f&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1&SeekPage=x&ZyPURL "Clear cut."] ''Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms.'' p. 6. Document no. EPA-175-B-92-001. Accessed 2011-10-12.</ref> and [[deforestation and climate change|contributes to climate change]].<ref>Center for Biological Diversity, Tucson, AZ. [http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/forests/clearcutting_and_climate_change/ "Clearcutting and Climate Change."] Accessed 2011-10-12.</ref>
+'''Clearcutting''', '''clearfelling''' or '''clearcut logging''' is a [[forestry]]/[[logging]] practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with [[Shelterwood cutting|shelterwood]] and [[Seed tree|seed tree harvests]], it is used by [[forester]]s to create certain types of forest [[ecosystems]] and to promote select species<ref>{{cite news|access-date=2018-05-12|title=Budget for a €2,500/ha reforestation cost after clearfelling mature forest |date=2013-08-14|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/farming/budget-for-a-2500ha-reforestation-cost-after-clearfelling-mature-forest-29493489.html|newspaper=FarmIreland.ie|first= William |last= Merivale }}</ref> that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age [[stand level modelling|stand]]s.<ref name="Dovetail"/> Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of [[deforestation]] that [[habitat destruction|destroys natural habitats]]<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (1992). [http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/200081E1.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=1991+Thru+1994&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&XmlQuery=&File=D%3A\zyfiles\Index%20Data\91thru94\Txt\00000004\200081E1.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h|-&MaximumDocuments=1&FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16/i425&Display=p|f&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1&SeekPage=x&ZyPURL "Clear cut."] ''Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms.'' p. 6. Document no. EPA-175-B-92-001. Accessed 2011-10-12.</ref> and [[deforestation and climate change|contributes to climate change]].<ref>Center for Biological Diversity, Tucson, AZ. [http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/forests/clearcutting_and_climate_change/ "Clearcutting and Climate Change."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626111339/http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/forests/clearcutting_and_climate_change/ |date=2018-06-26 }} Accessed 2011-10-12.</ref> Environmentalists, traditional owners, local residents and others have regularly campaigned against clearcutting, including through the use of blockades and nonviolent direct action.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McIntyre |first=Iain |date=2020-11-04 |title=Environmental Blockading in Australia and Around the World – Timeline 1974–1997 |url=https://commonslibrary.org/environmental-blockading-in-australia-and-around-the-world-timeline-1974-1997/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref>
-Clearcutting is the most common and economically profitable method of logging. However, it also may create detrimental side effects, such as the loss of [[topsoil]], the costs of which are intensely debated by economic, environmental and other interests. In addition to the purpose of harvesting wood, clearcutting is used to [[Land development#Conversion to farmland|create land for farming]].<ref name="environmentalgovernance.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.environmentalgovernance.org/research/issues/forests/ |title=Global Environmental Governance Project: Forests |access-date=2012-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118013713/http://www.environmentalgovernance.org/research/issues/forests/ |archive-date=2012-11-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ultimately, the effects of clearcutting on the land will depend on how well or poorly the forest is managed,<ref>Rodney J. Keenan, & J.P. (Hamish) Kimmins (1993).[https://www.jstor.org/stable/envirevi.1.2.121 "The ecological effects of clear-cutting"] ''Environmental Reviews'', 1(2), 121-144. Retrieved September 16, 2020.</ref> and whether it is converted to non-forest land uses after clearcuts.<ref>FAO (2016). [http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5588e.pdf "State of the World's Forests 2016"]</ref>
+Clearcutting is the most common and economically profitable method of logging. However, it also may create detrimental side effects, such as the loss of [[topsoil]], the costs of which are intensely debated by economic, environmental and other interests. In addition to the purpose of harvesting wood, clearcutting is used to [[Land development#Conversion to farmland|create land for farming]].<ref name="environmentalgovernance.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.environmentalgovernance.org/research/issues/forests/ |title=Global Environmental Governance Project: Forests |access-date=2012-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118013713/http://www.environmentalgovernance.org/research/issues/forests/ |archive-date=2012-11-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ultimately, the effects of clearcutting on the land will depend on how well or poorly the forest is managed,<ref>Rodney J. Keenan, & J.P. (Hamish) Kimmins (1993).[https://www.jstor.org/stable/envirevi.1.2.121 "The ecological effects of clear-cutting"] ''Environmental Reviews'', 1(2), 121–144. Retrieved September 16, 2020.</ref> and whether it is converted to non-forest land uses after clearcuts.<ref>FAO (2016). [http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5588e.pdf "State of the World's Forests 2016"]</ref>
-While deforestation of both [[temperate forest|temperate]] and [[tropical forest]]s through clearcutting has received considerable media attention in recent years, the other large forests of the world, such as the [[taiga]], also known as boreal forests, are also under threat of rapid development. In Russia, North America and Scandinavia, creating [[Nature reserve|protected areas]] and granting long-term leases to tend and regenerate trees—thus maximizing future harvests—are among the means used to limit the harmful effects of clearcutting.<ref>Kunganavolok (June 25, 1998). [http://www.economist.com/node/372810 "Taiga! taiga! burning bright."] ''The Economist''. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.</ref> Long-term studies of clearcut forests, such as studies of the [[Pasoh Forest Reserve|Pasoh Rainforest]] in Malaysia, are also important in providing insights into the preservation of forest resources worldwide.<ref>Khan, Madeline (February 9, 2004). [http://thevarsity.ca/2004/02/09/clear-cut-forests-in-malaysia-offer-lessons-for-logging-worldwide/ "Clear cut forests in Malaysia offer lessons for logging worldwide."] ''The Varsity'', University of Toronto. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.</ref>
+While deforestation of both [[temperate forest|temperate]] and [[tropical forest]]s through clearcutting has received considerable media attention in recent years, the other large forests of the world, such as the [[taiga]], also known as boreal forests, are also under threat of rapid development. In Russia, North America and Scandinavia, creating [[Nature reserve|protected areas]] and granting long-term leases to tend and regenerate trees—thus maximizing future harvests—are among the means used to limit the harmful effects of clearcutting.<ref>Kunganavolok (June 25, 1998). [http://www.economist.com/node/372810 "Taiga! taiga! burning bright."] ''The Economist''. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.</ref> Long-term studies of clearcut forests, such as studies of the [[Pasoh Forest Reserve|Pasoh Rainforest]] in Malaysia, are also important in providing insights into the conservation of forest resources worldwide.<ref>Khan, Madeline (February 9, 2004). [http://thevarsity.ca/2004/02/09/clear-cut-forests-in-malaysia-offer-lessons-for-logging-worldwide/ "Clear cut forests in Malaysia offer lessons for logging worldwide."] ''The Varsity'', University of Toronto. Retrieved: 2013-08-06.</ref>
 ==Types==
 Many variations of clearcutting exist; the most common professional practices are:<ref>{{cite book |last1= Helms |first1= John A. |title= The Dictionary of Forestry |date= 1998-09-01 |publisher= [[Society of American Foresters]] |isbn= 978-0-939970-73-5 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoffore0000unse }}</ref>
-*''Standard (uniform) clearcut'' – removal of every stem (whether commercially viable or not), so no [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]] remains.
+* ''Standard (uniform) clearcut'' – removal of every stem (whether commercially viable or not), so no [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]] remains.
-*''Patch clearcut'' – removal of all the stems in a limited, predetermined area (patch).
+* ''Patch clearcut'' – removal of all the stems in a limited, predetermined area (patch).
-*''Strip clearcut'' – removal of all the stems in a row (strip), usually placed perpendicular to the [[prevailing winds]] in order to minimize the possibility of [[windthrow]].<ref>British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC. [http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/SSIntroworkbook/varclear.htm#clear "Clearcut System Variations."] ''Introduction to Silvicultural Systems.'' Based on the published workbook: "Introduction to Silvicultural Systems, second edition (July 1999)." Forest Practices Branch.</ref>
+* ''Strip clearcut'' – removal of all the stems in a row (strip), usually placed perpendicular to the [[prevailing winds]] in order to minimize the possibility of [[windthrow]].<ref>British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC. [http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/SSIntroworkbook/varclear.htm#clear "Clearcut System Variations."] ''Introduction to Silvicultural Systems.'' Based on the published workbook: "Introduction to Silvicultural Systems, second edition (July 1999)." Forest Practices Branch.</ref>
-*''Clearcutting-with-reserves'' – removal of the majority of standing stems save a few reserved for other purposes (for example as [[snag (ecology)|snag]]s for [[wildlife]] [[habitat]]), (often confused with the [[seed trees|seed tree]] method).
+* ''Clearcutting-with-reserves'' – removal of the majority of standing stems, leaving a few reserved for other purposes (for example as [[snag (ecology)|snag]]s for [[wildlife]] [[habitat]]), (often confused with the [[seed trees|seed tree]] method).
-*''[[Slash-and-burn]]'' – the [[Shifting cultivation|permanent conversion]] of tropical and subtropicals forests for agricultural purposes. This is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical forests where [[population growth]] creates land needs from [[smallholders]] in [[developing countries|developing]] and [[least developed countries]]. Slash-and-burn entails the removal of all stems in a particular area. This can be a form of deforestation, when the land is converted to other uses. However, some [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] forest peoples, for example the 19th century [[Slash-and-burn#Forest Finns|Forest Finns]] rotate over the land and it does return to forest and this would be sustainable. Slash and burn techniques are typically used by civilians in search of land for living and agricultural purposes. The forest is first clear cut, and the remaining material is burned. One of the driving forces behind this process is a result of overpopulation and subsequent sprawl. These methods also occur as a result of commercial farming. The lumber is sold for profit, and the land, cleared of all remaining brush and suitable for agricultural development, is sold to farmers.<ref name="environmentalgovernance.org"/>
+* ''[[Slash-and-burn]]'' – the [[Shifting cultivation|permanent conversion]] of tropical and subtropicals forests for agricultural purposes. This is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical forests where [[population growth]] creates land needs from [[smallholders]] in [[developing countries|developing]] and [[least developed countries]]. Slash-and-burn entails the removal of all stems in a particular area. This can be a form of deforestation, when the land is converted to other uses. However, some [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] forest peoples, for example the 19th century [[Slash-and-burn#Forest Finns|Forest Finns]] rotate over the land and it does return to forest and this would be sustainable. Slash and burn techniques are typically used by civilians in search of land for living and agricultural purposes. The forest is first clear cut, and the remaining material is burned. One of the driving forces behind this process is a result of overpopulation and subsequent sprawl. These methods also occur as a result of commercial farming. The lumber is sold for profit, and the land, cleared of all remaining brush and suitable for agricultural development, is sold to farmers.<ref name="environmentalgovernance.org"/>
-*''[[Selection cutting]]'' – which can be done for timber harvesting or for ecological reasons. when so done it is often called [[ecoforestry]].
 Clearcutting contrasts with selective cutting, such as [[high grading]], in which only commercially valuable trees are harvested, leaving all others. This practice can reduce the [[genetics|genetic]] viability of the forest over time, resulting in poorer or less vigorous [[offspring]] in the stand.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Clearcutting also differs from a [[coppicing]] system, by allowing [[revegetation]] by [[seedling]]s. Additionally, destructive forms of [[forest management]] are commonly referred to as 'clearcutting'.
 ==Clearcutting regeneration, harvesting or system==
-[[File:Bad Lands, Unaka National Forest - NARA - 280115.jpg|thumb|Clearcut logging in the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] (Tennessee) in 1936.]]
+[[File:Bad Lands, Unaka National Forest - NARA - 280115.jpg|thumb|Clearcut logging in the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] (Tennessee) in 1936]]
-[[File:Clearcutting in Southern Finland.jpg|thumb|Clearcutting in Southern Finland.]]
+[[File:Clearcutting in Southern Finland.jpg|thumb|Clearcutting in Southern Finland]]
-[[File:Clearcutting-Oregon.jpg|thumb|Clearcutting near [[Eugene, Oregon]].]]
+[[File:Clearcutting-Oregon.jpg|thumb|Clearcutting near [[Eugene, Oregon]]]]
 Clearcutting can be differentiated into
+* ''Clearcutting'' – clean felling by complete exploitation and removal of all the trees in one operation ... '''a harvesting method'''
+* ''Clearcutting method'' – a '''method for regenerating''' an even-aged community by removing all the mature trees
+* ''Clearcutting system'' – a '''silvicultural system''' incorporating the clearcutting method to remove (clear) the mature community over a considerable area at one time<ref>Nyland, Ralph D. (2007). ''Silviculture: concepts and applications'', Ch 13 p. 277, 2nd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.</ref>
+Confusion between these different uses of the term is common. Furthermore, as indicated above many variations mean technically correct usage may not be descriptive enough to know what is meant on that particular occasion.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-*''Clearcutting'' - clean felling by complete exploitation and removal of all the trees in one operation ... '''a harvesting method'''
-* ''Clearcutting method'' - a '''method for regenerating''' an even-aged community by removing all the mature trees
-* ''Clearcutting system'' - a '''silvicultural system''' incorporating the clearcutting method to remove (clear) the mature community over a considerable area at one time<ref>Nyland, Ralph D. (2007). ''Silviculture: concepts and applications'', Ch 13 pg 277, 2nd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.</ref>
+A clearcut is distinguished from selective logging where typically only a few trees per hectare are harvested in proportions dictated by management objectives. Clearcut logging is also distinct from wildland fire use, and from forest thinning. In these latter two it is common practice to leave trees that are considered undesirable, such as those that are too diseased, stunted or small to be marketable. Selective logging is usually practiced in areas with access to infrastructure.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-Confusion between these different uses of the term is common. Furthermore, as indicated above many variations mean technically correct usage may not be descriptive enough to know what is meant on that particular occasion.
-A clearcut is distinguished from selective logging where typically only a few trees per hectare are harvested in proportions dictated by management objectives. Clearcut logging is also distinct from wildland fire use, and from forest thinning. In these latter two it is common practice to leave trees that are considered undesirable, such as those that are too diseased, stunted or small to be marketable. Selective logging is usually practiced in areas with access to infrastructure.
 ==Effects on the environment==
-Environmental groups criticize clear-cutting as destructive to water, [[soil]], wildlife, and [[atmosphere]], and recommend the use of [[sustainable]] alternatives.<ref name="greeniacs.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.greeniacs.com/GreeniacsArticles/Land/Clearcutting.html|title=Clear-cutting land Greeniacs Articles|access-date=2012-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016034338/http://www.greeniacs.com/GreeniacsArticles/Land/Clearcutting.html|archive-date=2012-10-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> Clear-cutting has a very big impact on the [[water cycle]]. Trees hold water and [[topsoil]]. Clear-cutting in forests removes the trees which would otherwise have been transpiring large volumes of water and also physically damages the grasses, [[moss]]es, [[lichen]]s, and [[fern]]s populating the [[understorey]]. All this bio-mass normally retains water during rainfall. Removal or damage of the [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] reduces the local capacity to retain water, which can exacerbate flooding and lead to increased leaching of [[nutrients]] from the soil. The maximum nutrient loss occurs around year two, and returns to pre-clearcutting levels by year four.<ref name="Martin">Martin, C. W., Pierce, R. S., Likens, G. E., & Bormann, F. H. (1986). Clearcutting affects stream chemistry in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Broomall, PA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.</ref>
+Environmental groups criticize clear-cutting as destructive to water, [[soil]], wildlife, and [[atmosphere]], and recommend the use of [[sustainable]] alternatives.<ref name="greeniacs.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.greeniacs.com/GreeniacsArticles/Land/Clearcutting.html|title=Clear-cutting land Greeniacs Articles|access-date=2012-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016034338/http://www.greeniacs.com/GreeniacsArticles/Land/Clearcutting.html|archive-date=2012-10-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> Clear-cutting impacts the [[water cycle]]. Trees hold water and [[topsoil]]. Clear-cutting in forests removes the trees which would otherwise have been transpiring large volumes of water and also physically damages the grasses, [[moss]]es, [[lichen]]s, and [[fern]]s populating the [[understorey|understory]]. Removal or damage of the [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] reduces the local capacity to retain water, which can exacerbate flooding and lead to increased leaching of [[nutrients]] from the soil. The maximum nutrient loss occurs around year two and returns to pre-clearcutting levels by year four after the cut.<ref name="Martin">Martin, C. W., Pierce, R. S., Likens, G. E., & Bormann, F. H. (1986). Clearcutting affects stream chemistry in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Broomall, PA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.</ref>
-Clear-cutting also prevents trees from shading riverbanks, which raises the temperature of riverbanks and rivers, contributing to the [[extinction]] of some fish and [[amphibian]] species.{{where|date=November 2012}} Because the trees no longer hold down the soil, riverbanks increasingly [[erosion|erode]] as sediment into the water, creating excess nutrients which exacerbate the changes in the river and create problems miles away, in the sea.<ref name="greeniacs.com"/> All of the extra sediment and nutrients that leach into the streams cause the acidity of the stream to increase, which can kill marine life if the increase is great enough.<ref name= "Martin"/> The nutrient content of the soil was found to return to five percent of pre-clearcutting levels after 64 years, which demonstrates how clearcutting affects the environment for many years.<ref>Covington, W. W. (1981). Changes in forest floor organic matter and nutrient content following clear cutting in northern hardwoods. Ecology, 41-48.</ref>
+Removing trees surrounding stream banks prevents shading of the water body, which raises the temperature of riverbanks and rivers. Because the trees no longer hold down the soil, riverbanks increasingly [[erosion|erode]] as sediment into the water, creating excess nutrients which exacerbate the changes in the river and create problems miles away, in the sea.<ref name="greeniacs.com"/> Clear cutting on a large scale in a watershed can cause sediment and nutrients that leach into the streams cause the acidity of the stream to increase.<ref name= "Martin"/> The nutrient content of the soil was found to return to five percent of pre-clearcutting levels after 64 years.<ref>Covington, W. W. (1981). Changes in forest floor organic matter and nutrient content following clear cutting in northern hardwoods. Ecology, 41-48.</ref>
+{{Wide image|Britannia Mines, upper town residential area (5456678861).jpg|700px|Upper town residential area of [[Britannia Beach]] in British Columbia, Canada, in September 1919. The community was built in a clearcut area adjacent to the Britannia Mines operations; stumps and stray logs are visible throughout the site and community.}}
-Clearcutting can destroy an area's ecological integrity in a number of ways, including: the destruction of buffer zones which reduce the severity of flooding by absorbing and holding water; the immediate removal of forest canopy, which destroys the habitat for many rainforest-dependent insects and bacteria; the removal of forest carbon sinks, leading to [[global warming]] through the increased human-induced and natural [[carbon dioxide]] build-up in the [[atmosphere]]; the elimination of fish and wildlife species due to [[soil erosion]] and habitat loss; the removal of underground worms, [[fungi]] and bacteria that condition soil and protect plants growing in it from disease; the loss of small-scale economic opportunities, such as fruit-picking, sap extraction, and rubber tapping; and the destruction of aesthetic values and recreational opportunities.<ref>What Is Clearcutting?
-This method of logging can destroy an area's ecological integrity. [http://www.nrdc.org/land/forests/fcut.asp]</ref>
-{{Wide image|Britannia Mines, upper town residential area (5456678861).jpg|700px|Upper town residential area of [[Britannia Beach]] in British Columbia, Canada in September 1919. The community was built in a clearcut area adjacent to the Britannia Mines operations; stumps and stray logs are visible throughout the site and community.}}
 ===Negative impacts===
-Clearcutting can have major negative impacts, both for humans and local flora and fauna.<ref>[http://www.forestencyclopedia.net/p/p1818 Forest Encyclopedia Network Advantages and disadvantages of clearcutting]</ref> A study from the [[University of Oregon]] found that in certain zones, areas that were clear cut had nearly three times the amount of [[erosion]] due to [[Landslide|slides]]. When the roads required by the clearcutting were factored in, the increase in slide activity appeared to be about 5 times greater compared to nearby forested areas. The roads built for clearcutting interrupt normal surface drainage because the roads are not as permeable as the normal ground cover. The roads also change subsurface water movement due to the redistribution of soil and rock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swanson |first1=F.J. |last2=Dyrness |first2=C.T. |year=1975 |title=Impact of clear-cutting and road construction on soil erosion by landslides in the western Cascade Range, Oregon |journal=Geology |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=393–396 |publisher=Geological Society of America |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1975)3<393:IOCARC>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1975Geo.....3..393S }}</ref> Clearcutting may lead to increased stream flow during storms, [[loss of habitat]] and species diversity, opportunities for [[Invasive species|invasive and weedy species]], and negative impacts on scenery,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/apa3316 |title= Woodlot Harvest |first= Toso |last= Bozic |date= September 14, 2009 |publisher= Government of Alberta: Agriculture and Rural Development |access-date=2011-03-07}}</ref> specifically, a growth of contempt by those familiar with the area for the wooded, planet aftermaths,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansis|first=Richard|date=1995|title=The Social Acceptability of Clearcutting in the Pacific Northwest|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44126577|journal=Human Organization|volume=54|issue=1|pages=95–101|doi=10.17730/humo.54.1.yj5338v42768002r|jstor=44126577|issn=0018-7259}}</ref> as well as a decrease in property values; diminished recreation, hunting, and fishing opportunities.<ref>Foothill Conservancy, Pine Grove, CA (2001). [http://www.foothillconservancy.org/pages/focus4.cgi?magicatid=&magi_detail=171&magid=11 "Clearcutting in local forests."] ''Foothill Focus.'' Spring 2001. Accessed 2011-10-12.</ref> Clearcutting decreases the occurrence of natural disturbances like forest fires and natural uprooting. Over time, this can deplete the local seed bank.<ref name="Pykälä, J. 2004">Pykälä, J. (2004). Immediate increase in plant species richness after clear‐cutting of boreal herb‐rich forests. Applied vegetation science, 7(1), 29-34.</ref>
+Clearcutting can have negative impacts, both for humans and local flora and fauna.<ref>[http://www.forestencyclopedia.net/p/p1818 Forest Encyclopedia Network Advantages and disadvantages of clearcutting]</ref> A study from the [[University of Oregon]] found that in certain zones, areas that were clear cut had nearly three times the amount of [[erosion]] due to [[Landslide|slides]]. When the roads required by the clearcutting were factored in, the increase in slide activity appeared to be about 5 times greater compared to nearby forested areas. The roads built for clearcutting interrupt normal surface drainage because the roads are not as permeable as the normal ground cover. The roads also change subsurface water movement due to the redistribution of soil and rock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swanson |first1=F.J. |last2=Dyrness |first2=C.T. |year=1975 |title=Impact of clear-cutting and road construction on soil erosion by landslides in the western Cascade Range, Oregon |journal=Geology |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=393–396 |publisher=Geological Society of America |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1975)3<393:IOCARC>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1975Geo.....3..393S }}</ref> Clearcutting may lead to increased stream flow during storms, [[loss of habitat]] and species diversity, opportunities for [[Invasive species|invasive and weedy species]], and negative impacts on scenery,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/apa3316 |title= Woodlot Harvest |first= Toso |last= Bozic |date= September 14, 2009 |publisher= Government of Alberta: Agriculture and Rural Development |access-date=2011-03-07}}</ref> specifically, a growth of contempt by those familiar with the area for the wooded, planet aftermaths,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansis|first=Richard|date=1995|title=The Social Acceptability of Clearcutting in the Pacific Northwest|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44126577|journal=Human Organization|volume=54|issue=1|pages=95–101|doi=10.17730/humo.54.1.yj5338v42768002r|jstor=44126577|issn=0018-7259}}</ref> as well as a decrease in property values; diminished recreation, hunting, and fishing opportunities.<ref>Foothill Conservancy, Pine Grove, CA (2001). [http://www.foothillconservancy.org/pages/focus4.cgi?magicatid=&magi_detail=171&magid=11 "Clearcutting in local forests."] ''Foothill Focus.'' Spring 2001. Accessed 2011-10-12.</ref> Clearcutting decreases the occurrence of natural disturbances like forest fires and natural uprooting. Over time, this can deplete the local seed bank.<ref name="Pykälä, J. 2004">Pykälä, J. (2004). Immediate increase in plant species richness after clear-cutting of boreal herb-rich forests. Applied vegetation science, 7(1), 29-34.</ref>
 In [[Temperateness|temperate]] and [[Taiga|boreal]] climates, clearcutting can have an effect on the depth of snow, which is usually greater in a clearcut area than in the forest, due to a lack of [[Interception (water)|interception]] and [[evapotranspiration]]. This results in less [[Frost line|soil frost]], which in combination with higher levels of direct [[sunlight]] results in [[snowmelt]] occurring earlier in the spring and earlier peak runoff.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ottosson Löfvenius | first = M. |author2=Kluge, M. |author3=Lundmark, T.. | title = Snow and Soil Frost Depth in Two Types of Shelterwood and a Clear cut Area | journal = Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research | volume = 18 | pages = 54–63 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | year = 2003 | issn = 0282-7581 | doi = 10.1080/0891060310002345}}</ref>
-The world's rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of deforestation. Between June 2000 and June 2008 more than 150 000 square kilometers of rainforest were cleared in the [[Amazônia Legal|Brazilian Amazon]]. Huge areas of forest have already been lost. For example, only eight to fourteen percent of the [[Atlantic Forest]] in South America now remains.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reforestation|url=http://www.arkive.org/reforestation/|publisher=Arkive|access-date=2013-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302120215/http://www.arkive.org/reforestation/|archive-date=2013-03-02|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Brazil & the Atlantic Forest|url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/southamerica/brazil/placesweprotect/atlantic-forest.xml|publisher=The Nature Conservancy|access-date=2016-01-11}}</ref> While deforestation rates have slowed since 2004, forest loss is expected to continue for the foreseeable future.<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0801-amazon.html Future threats to the Amazon rainforest] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101095911/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0801-amazon.html |date=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Farmers slash and burn large parcels of forest every year to create grazing and croplands, but the forest's nutrient-poor soil often renders the land ill-suited for agriculture, and within a year or two, the farmers move on.<ref>[http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/rainforest-threats/ National Geographic:rain forest threats ]</ref>
+The world's rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of deforestation. Between June 2000 and June 2008, more than {{convert|150,000|sqkm|abbr=on}} of rainforest were cleared in the [[Amazônia Legal|Brazilian Amazon]]. Huge areas of forest have already been lost. For example, only eight to fourteen percent of the [[Atlantic Forest]] in South America now remains.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reforestation|url=http://www.arkive.org/reforestation/|publisher=Arkive|access-date=2013-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302120215/http://www.arkive.org/reforestation/|archive-date=2013-03-02|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Brazil & the Atlantic Forest|url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/southamerica/brazil/placesweprotect/atlantic-forest.xml|publisher=The Nature Conservancy|access-date=2016-01-11}}</ref> While deforestation rates have slowed since 2004, [[forest loss]] is expected to continue for the foreseeable future.<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0801-amazon.html Future threats to the Amazon rainforest] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101095911/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0801-amazon.html |date=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Farmers slash and burn large parcels of forest every year to create grazing and croplands, but the forest's nutrient-poor soil often renders the land ill-suited for agriculture, and within a year or two, the farmers move on.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100509002310/http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/rainforest-threats National Geographic:rain forest threats ]</ref>
 ===Positive perspectives===
-Clearcutting can be practiced to encourage the growth and proliferation of tree species that require high [[shade tolerance|light intensity]].<ref>Belt, Kevin and Campbell, Robert (1999). [http://ahc.caf.wvu.edu/joomla/index.php?option=com_remository&Itemid=148&func=startdown&id=247 "The Clearcutting Controversy - Myths and Facts."] West Virginia University Extension Service. Accessed 2011-12-12.</ref> Generally, a harvest area wider than double the height of the adjacent trees will no longer be subject to the moderating influence of the woodland on the [[microclimate]].<ref name="Dovetail">{{cite journal | author = Dr. J. Bowyer | author2 = K. Fernholz | author3 = A. Lindburg | author4 = Dr. J. Howe | author5 = Dr. S. Bratkovich | title = The Power of Silviculture: Employing Thinning, Partial Cutting Systems and Other Intermediate Treatments to Increase Productivity, Forest Health and Public Support for Forestry | publisher = Dovetail Partners Inc. | date = 2009-05-28 | url = http://dovetailinc.org/files/DovetailSilvics0509.pdf | access-date = 2009-06-06 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101029212926/http://dovetailinc.org/files/DovetailSilvics0509.pdf | archive-date = 2010-10-29 }}</ref> The width of the harvest area can thus determine which species will come to dominate. Those with high tolerance to extremes in [[temperature]], [[Water content|soil moisture]], and resistance to [[Browsing (predation)|browsing]] may be established, in particular [[secondary succession]]al [[pioneer species]].
+Clearcutting can be practiced to encourage the growth and proliferation of tree species that require high [[shade tolerance|light intensity]].<ref>Belt, Kevin and Campbell, Robert (1999). [http://ahc.caf.wvu.edu/joomla/index.php?option=com_remository&Itemid=148&func=startdown&id=247 "The Clearcutting Controversy - Myths and Facts."] West Virginia University Extension Service. Accessed 2011-12-12.</ref> Generally, a harvest area wider than double the height of the adjacent trees will no longer be subject to the moderating influence of the woodland on the [[microclimate]].<ref name="Dovetail">{{cite journal | author = Dr. J. Bowyer | author2 = K. Fernholz | author3 = A. Lindburg | author4 = Dr. J. Howe | author5 = Dr. S. Bratkovich | title = The Power of Silviculture: Employing Thinning, Partial Cutting Systems and Other Intermediate Treatments to Increase Productivity, Forest Health and Public Support for Forestry | publisher = Dovetail Partners Inc. | date = 2009-05-28 | url = http://dovetailinc.org/files/DovetailSilvics0509.pdf | access-date = 2009-06-06 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101029212926/http://dovetailinc.org/files/DovetailSilvics0509.pdf | archive-date = 2010-10-29 }}</ref> The width of the harvest area can thus determine which species will come to dominate. Those with high tolerance to extremes in [[temperature]], [[Water content|soil moisture]], and resistance to [[Browsing (predation)|browsing]] may be established, in particular [[secondary succession]]al [[pioneer species]].{{cn|date=July 2023}}
 Clearcutting can be used by [[forester]]s as a method of mimicking a natural [[Disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] and increasing [[Ecological succession|primary successional]] species, such as [[Populus|poplar]] ([[aspen]]), [[willow]] and [[Prunus serotina|black cherry]] in [[North America]]. Clearcutting has also proved to be effective in creating animal habitat and browsing areas, which otherwise would not exist without natural stand-replacing disturbances such as [[wildfire]]s, large scale [[windthrow]], or [[avalanche]]s.
-Clearcuts are used to help regenerate species that cannot compete in mature forests. A number of them are aspen, jack pine and, in areas with poor soils, oaks—are important species for both game and nongame wildlife species. Clearcutting can also lead to increased vascular-plant diversity in the area. This is most pronounced after a couple years of clearcutting and in herb-rich forests where scarification took place.<ref name="Pykälä, J. 2004"/>
+Clearcuts are used to help regenerate species that cannot compete in mature forests. A number of them are aspen, jack pine, and, in areas with poor soils, oaks—are important species for both game and nongame wildlife species. Clearcutting can also lead to increased vascular-plant diversity in the area. This is most pronounced after a couple years of clearcutting and in herb-rich forests where scarification took place.<ref name="Pykälä, J. 2004"/>
-No significant changes in water temperature were observed when patch clearcutting was done 100 feet away from a river. This suggests that patch clearcutting is a possible solution to concerns about changes in water temperature due to clearcutting. The effects of clearcutting on soil nutrient content were not examined in this study.<ref>Brown, G. W., & Krygier, J. T. (1970). Effects of clear‐cutting on stream temperature. Water resources research, 6(4), 1133–1139.</ref>
+No significant changes in water temperature were observed when patch clearcutting was done {{convert|100|ft|abbr=on}} away from a river. This suggests that patch clearcutting is a possible solution to concerns about changes in water temperature due to clearcutting. The effects of clearcutting on soil nutrient content were not examined in this study.<ref>Brown, G. W., & Krygier, J. T. (1970). Effects of clear-cutting on stream temperature. Water resources research, 6(4), 1133–1139.</ref>
 More recently, forest managers have found that clearcutting oak stands helps regenerate oak forests in areas of poor soil. The tree canopies in oak forests often shade out the ground, making it impossible for newly sprouted oaks to grow. When the mature trees are removed, the saplings stand a chance of recruiting into the forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,4570,7-153-10366_46403_59160-215632--,00.html|title=DNR - DNR|website=www.michigan.gov}}</ref>
 ===Effects on wildlife===
-Clearcutting's main destruction is towards habitats, where it makes the habitats more vulnerable in the future to damage by insects, diseases, acid rain, and wind. Removal of all trees from an area destroys the physical habitats of many species in wildlife. Also, clearcutting can contribute to problems for ecosystems that depend on forests, like the streams and rivers which run through them.<ref>Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States. {{cite web |url=http://www.clemson.edu/extfor/timber_production/fortp19.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103144233/http://www.clemson.edu/extfor/timber_production/fortp19.htm |archive-date=2013-01-03 }}</ref>
+Clearcutting's main destruction is towards habitats, where it makes the habitats more vulnerable in the future to damage by insects, diseases, acid rain, and wind. Removal of all trees from an area destroys the physical habitats of many species in wildlife. Also, clearcutting can contribute to problems for ecosystems that depend on forests, like the streams and rivers that run through them.<ref>Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States. {{cite web |url=http://www.clemson.edu/extfor/timber_production/fortp19.htm |title=Responses of Wildlife to Clearcutting and Associated Treatments in the Eastern United States |access-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103144233/http://www.clemson.edu/extfor/timber_production/fortp19.htm |archive-date=2013-01-03 }}</ref>
-In Canada, the [[black-tailed deer]] population is at further risk after clearcutting. The deer are a food source for wolves and cougars, as well as [[First Nations]] and other hunters. While deer may not be at risk in cities and rural countryside, where they can be seen running through neighbourhoods and feeding on farms, in higher altitude areas they require forest shelter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientforestguide.com/news-item.php?ID=266|title=Ancient Forest Alliance - Old Growth Forests British Columbia|website=www.ancientforestguide.com|access-date=2012-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182652/http://www.ancientforestguide.com/news-item.php?ID=266|archive-date=2014-03-26|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-=== Effects on Environmental Injustice ===
-Clearcutting, which often leads to [[deforestation]], negatively affects the health of people, but deforestation also creates issues of [[Environmental justice|Environmental Justice]]. This issue has been present for many years, dating back to influential figures [[Gifford Pinchot]] and [[Bob Marshall (wilderness activist)|Robert Marshall]] in the early 1900s. While Gifford proposed that natural resources should serve the people, decisions to do so were monopolistic and served only the wealthy. Pinchot argued all Americans should benefit from the management of natural resources. Since then, society has faced decisions made by community leaders that have negatively affected people and the environment <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Salazar|first=Debra J.|date=1996-11-01|title=Environmental Justice and a People's Forestry|url=https://academic.oup.com/jof/article/94/11/32/4673314|journal=Journal of Forestry|language=en|volume=94|issue=11|pages=32–36|doi=10.1093/jof/94.11.32|doi-broken-date=2021-01-15|issn=0022-1201}}</ref>
-Recently in the forestry industry, a new form of land management has been implemented. Known as Outcome Based Forestry, (OBF) is a form of logging different from original regulations of logging harvesting.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mfs/policy_management/outcome_based_forestry.html|title=Outcome Based Forestry: Forest Policy and Management: Division of Forestry: Maine ACF|website=www.maine.gov|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> This newer program allows for a wide range of harvesting as long as the removed trees do not exceed the amount of tree growth. Since implemented, this program has led to a method of large-scale clearcutting and monoculture tree planting to meet economic demands. This program brings about some concern because along with clearcutting degrading the land, the effects of such degrading management practices affect the human laborers and livelihoods of people who are not even associated with the logging.<ref name=":0" />
-The state of Maine's forest practices can be used to better understand terms associated with Environmental Justice.[[Dominant culture]] is the majority beliefs, values, and worldview of a particular group of people that has formed the bedrock of all decisions. Components of dominant culture are based on a capitalistic ideology with technological progress, a sense of individualism, [[patriarchy]], and abled bodies. In Maine, the forest industry is dependent on the timber market. Depending on what materials are in highest demand, only certain tree species and volume of wood are needed. The lumber markets are highly variable and can force loggers from having a stable work schedule and income.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/commodities/lumber-price|title=Lumber PRICE Today {{!}} Lumber Spot Price Chart {{!}} Live Price of Lumber per Ounce {{!}} Markets Insider|last=GmbH|first=finanzen net|website=markets.businessinsider.com|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> Especially with the winter of 2019 to 2020 being short due to a warm weather, many loggers have not been able to be independent they literally cannot make ends meet due a lack of income. It was like a breath of fresh air for loggers when L.D. 1698 in Maine was created; proposing a tax credit for renewable fuels and chemicals manufacturing through the use of responsibly harvested wood from Maine, and give a tax break to managers to ensure responsible harvesting.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mainelegislature.org/legis/bills/bills_129th/billtexts/HP121307.asp|title=HP1213, LD 1698, item 7, Document Text|website=www.mainelegislature.org|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> The bill was shortly afterward recalled; removing the proposed tax break to loggers and giving manufacturers a tax break instead.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centralmaine.com/2020/03/23/maine-compass-lets-support-maine-loggers/|title=Maine Compass: Let's support Maine loggers|last=Doran|first=Dana|date=2020-03-23|website=Kennebec Journal and Morning Sentinel|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> L.D. 1698 is an environmental justice issue of hierarchal dualism,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waywordradio.org/hierarchical_dualism_1/|title=A Way with Words {{!}} hierarchical dualism|website=www.waywordradio.org|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> where the manufacturers who are already successful get the privilege of the tax reduction, whereas the small self-employed logging businesses who have families to provide for get no privilege, but oppression in having to pay the tax instead.
-To the loggers and other workers who have no control over these laws, there are discrimination patterns. The loggers who work on the front lines of the forestry industry are often identified as uneducated and lazy, but this perspective does not take into consideration [[intersectionality]] and the Black Feminist Theory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collins|first=Patricia Hill|date=1989|title=The Social Construction of Black Feminist Thought|journal=Signs|volume=14|issue=4|pages=745–773|doi=10.1086/494543|jstor=3174683|s2cid=143861548|issn=0097-9740}}</ref> Intersectionality is the interconnected nature of social categorizations. Loggers hold multiple identities: a parent, child, mechanic, accountant, forester, and ecologist. Understanding that within the Black Feminist Theory there is intersectionality among individuals can change the way decisions like L.D. 1698 are made in the future. It is most likely that loggers have an understanding and skills from the long histories of interaction with the land that most others do not have – known as indigenous epistemology.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Antoine|first1=Asma-na-hi|title=Glossary of Terms|date=2018|url=https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/indigenizationcurriculumdevelopers/back-matter/glossary/|work=Pulling Together: A Guide for Curriculum Developers|language=en|access-date=2020-03-26|last2=Mason|first2=Rachel|last3=Mason|first3=Roberta|last4=Palahicky|first4=Sophia|last5=France|first5=Carmen Rodriguez de}}</ref> Using their invaluable knowledge could also help better decision making.
+In Canada, the [[black-tailed deer]] population is at further risk after clearcutting. The deer are a food source for wolves and cougars, as well as [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] and other hunters. While deer may not be at risk in cities and rural countryside, where they can be seen running through neighbourhoods and feeding on farms, in higher altitude areas they require forest shelter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientforestguide.com/news-item.php?ID=266|title=Ancient Forest Alliance - Old Growth Forests British Columbia|website=www.ancientforestguide.com|access-date=2012-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182652/http://www.ancientforestguide.com/news-item.php?ID=266|archive-date=2014-03-26|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-Further, Maine's forests provide necessary resources to humans for survival and [[quality of life]], but the forests also need to be taken care of appropriately in order to support humans. [[Anthropocentrism]] is the way many people see the environment – that humankind is the central element of existence, and the environment is in existence solely to help humans survive. Since Outcome Based Logging has been established in Maine, research done by the University of Maine's Sustainability Solutions Initiative has found data showing that the 8&nbsp;million acres of certified forest land in Maine (primarily Northern Maine), is being [[overharvested]]. This leads to reduced long-term stability of [[timber harvest]]s, not to mention the effects to watersheds through erosion and pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rolek|first1=Brian W.|last2=Harrison|first2=Daniel J.|last3=Loftin|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Wood|first4=Petra B.|date=November 2018|title=Regenerating clearcuts combined with postharvest forestry treatments promote habitat for breeding and post-breeding spruce-fir avian assemblages in the Atlantic Northern Forest|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=427|pages=392–413|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2018.05.068|issn=0378-1127}}</ref>
+===In Maine===
-For [[Lake Erie]] in North America, the problem of exploitation from dumping waste into the waters from factories and pollution from boats has been solved in an uncommon way. Lake Erie has been granted [[legal rights]] just like humans are reserved to.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/2/26/18241904/lake-erie-legal-rights-personhood-nature-environment-toledo-ohio|title=Lake Erie now has legal rights, just like you|last=Samuel|first=Sigal|date=2019-02-26|website=Vox|language=en|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> If this same bill was created for Maine's woodlands, the environmental degradation and environmental justice that both the land and people face could be reduced, and quality of life could increase. This is just one example how recognizing [[Environmental justice|Environmental Justice]] land can used to better people and the environment.
+In [[Maine]], a form of land management known as Outcome Based Forestry (OBF)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mfs/policy_management/outcome_based_forestry.html|title=Outcome Based Forestry: Forest Policy and Management: Division of Forestry: Maine ACF|website=www.maine.gov|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref> allows for a wide range of harvesting as long as the removed trees do not exceed the amount of tree growth. Since implemented, this program has led to large-scale clearcutting and monoculture tree planting,<ref name=":0" /> and research by the [[University of Maine]]'s Sustainability Solutions Initiative has found that {{convert|8,000,000|acres|abbr=on}} of certified forest land in (primarily northern) Maine is being [[overharvested]], leading to reduced long-term stability of [[timber harvest]]s and increased erosion and pollution in the watershed.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} These practices have sparked [[environmental justice]] concerns regarding the health and well-being of foresters and locals.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}
 ==See also==
@@ Line 98: / Line 84: @@
 {{Commons category}}
 {{Wiktionary|clear cut}}
+* [https://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search/?q=clearcutting&t=fulltext&nlow=&nhi= Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Clearcutting, accessed 14 December 2009]
-*[http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/economy-business/natural-resources/clearcutting-and-logging-the-war-of-the-woods-1/topic---clearcutting-and-logging-the-war-of-the-woods.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) Digital Archives - Clearcutting and Logging: The War of the Woods]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110816141425/http://forestpolicyresearch.org/2009/03/04/california-citizens-to-stop-sierra-pacifics-plan-to-clearcut-one-million-acres-of-sierra-forest/ Forest Policy Research page: California citizens to stop Sierra Pacifics plan to clearcut one million acres of Sierra forest, accessed 14 December 2009]
-*[https://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search/?q=clearcutting&t=fulltext&nlow=&nhi= Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Clearcutting, accessed 14 December 2009]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182652/http://www.ancientforestguide.com/news-item.php?ID=266 Ancient Forest News - Clearcutting threatens black-tailed deer]
-*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110816141425/http://forestpolicyresearch.org/2009/03/04/california-citizens-to-stop-sierra-pacifics-plan-to-clearcut-one-million-acres-of-sierra-forest/ Forest Policy Research page: California citizens to stop Sierra Pacifics plan to clearcut one million acres of Sierra forest, accessed 14 December 2009]
-*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182652/http://www.ancientforestguide.com/news-item.php?ID=266 Ancient Forest News - Clearcutting threatens black-tailed deer]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110827224824/http://www.publicland.ca/issues/clearcutting.html Nova Scotia Public Lands Coalition: Clearcutting]
+* {{cite web |url=http://freegrassy.org/learn-more/the-boreal-forest/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405044249/http://freegrassy.org/learn-more/the-boreal-forest/ |archive-date=2010-04-05 |url-status=dead |title=Free Grassy » The Boreal Forest |access-date=2014-06-29 }}
-*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110827224824/http://www.publicland.ca/issues/clearcutting.html Nova Scotia Public Lands Coalition: Clearcutting]
-*{{cite web |url=http://freegrassy.org/learn-more/the-boreal-forest/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405044249/http://freegrassy.org/learn-more/the-boreal-forest/ |archive-date=2010-04-05 |url-status=dead |title=Free Grassy &raquo; The Boreal Forest |access-date=2014-06-29 }}
 {{Forestry}}

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